Is Knowledge of God a Cognitive Achievement?

This essay considers whether reformed epistemology is compatible with the claim that knowledge is a cognitive achievement. It is argued that knowledge of God is not only compatible with a more general achievement claim, but is also compatible with a much stronger achievement claim – namely, the strong achievement thesis where achievements are characterized by the overcoming of some obstacle. With respect to reformed epistemology, then, it is argued that the obstacle that is overcome is an environment that is not conducive to belief in God given the cognitive consequence of sin. This essay suggests two ways in which the agent is involved in the process of overcoming this obstacle.     

What Is a Conventional Object Function? The Effects of Intentionality and Consistency of Use

By preschool age, children have a sophisticated assumption about the conventional nature of various kinds of information. The present studies investigated the role of two cues in 2- and 3-year-olds' determination of what is conventional, namely the intentionality and intra-individual consistency in the use of objects. Overall, in Study 1, both 2- and 3-year-olds were more likely to say that the expected use and purpose of an object was a function intentionally and consistently demonstrated. In Study 2, 3-year-olds but not 2-year-olds generalized their expectation about the conventionality of an intentionally demonstrated function to another agent's learning of the function. These findings shed light on how children's assumption of what is conventional gets refined via children's intuitive interpretive dispositions regarding human actions.     

Is Mathematics a Domain for Philosophers of Explanation?

In this paper we discuss three interrelated questions. First: is explanation in mathematics a topic that philosophers of mathematics can legitimately investigate? Second: are the specific aims that philosophers of mathematical explanation set themselves legitimate? Finally: are the models of explanation developed by philosophers of science useful tools for philosophers of mathematical explanation? We argue that the answer to all these questions is positive. Our views are completely opposite to the views that Mark Zelcer has put forward recently. Throughout this paper, we show why Zelcer’s arguments fail.     

Procrastination in Different Life-Domains: Is Procrastination Domain Specific?

Procrastination, putting off until tomorrow what one had intended to do today, is a well-known phenomenon in everyday life. In an attempt to understand the character of procrastination, a large body of research has been accumulating over the last 40 years. The present study was to evaluate the need to distinguish between procrastination in different life-domains by gathering first hints as to whether procrastination is domain specific or domain general. In an online survey on 260 students (mean age?=?23.56; SD?=?3.74) the procrastination frequency in 6 different life-domains (academic and work, everyday routines and obligations, health, leisure, family and partnership, social contacts) was examined. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and the analysis of mean-level differences revealed that procrastination is domain specific, but not extremely so. The results encourage further investigations into the domain specificity of procrastination and suggest that future diagnoses of and interventions for procrastination will profit from considering the life-domain procrastination occurs in.     

Cognitive consequences of cooperative breeding in primates?

Several hypotheses propose that cooperative breeding leads to increased cognitive performance, in both nonhuman and human primates, but systematic evidence for such a relationship is missing. A causal link might exist because motivational and cognitive processes necessary for the execution and coordination of helping behaviors could also favor cognitive performance in contexts not directly related to caregiving. In callitrichids, which among primates rely most strongly on cooperative breeding, these motivational and cognitive processes include attentional biases toward monitoring others, the ability to coordinate actions spatially and temporally, increased social tolerance, increased responsiveness to others’ signals, and spontaneous prosociality. These processes are likely to enhance performance particularly in socio-cognitive contexts. Therefore, cooperatively breeding primates are expected to outperform their independently breeding sister taxa in socio-cognitive tasks. We evaluate this prediction by reviewing the literature and comparing cognitive performance in callitrichids with that of their sister taxa, i.e. squirrel monkeys, which are independent breeders, and capuchin monkeys, which show an intermediate breeding system. Consistent with our prediction, this review reveals that callitrichids systematically and significantly outperform their sister taxa in the socio-cognitive, but not in the non-social domain. This comparison is complemented with more qualitative evaluations of prosociality and cognitive performance in non-primate cooperative breeders, which suggest that among mammals, cooperative breeding generally produces conditions conducive to socio-cognitive performance. In the hominid lineage, however, the adoption of extensive allomaternal care presumably resulted in more pervasive cognitive consequences, because the motivational consequences of cooperative breeding was added to an ape-level cognitive system already capable of understanding simple mental states, which enabled the emergence of shared intentionality.     

Is there an Ethics of Computing?

ABSTRACT  The article constitutes an attempt to answer the question contained in the title, by reference to three example topics: individual privacy, ownership of software, and computer 'hacking'. The ethical question is approached via the legal one of whether special, computer–specific legislation is appropriate. The conclusion is in the affirmative, and rests on the claim that computer technology has brought with it, not so much the potential for committing totally new kinds of crimes, as a distinctive set of linguistic and conceptual apparatus which makes it necessary to describe computer–related activity in special ways.     

The Role of Native-Language Phonology in the Auditory Word Identification and Visual Word Recognition of Russian–English Bilinguals

Does native language phonology influence visual word processing in a second language? This question was investigated in two experiments with two groups of Russian-English bilinguals, differing in their English experience, and a monolingual English control group. Experiment 1 tested visual word recognition following semantic categorization of words containing four phonological vowel contrasts (\({/{{\rm i}}/-/{{\rm u}}/, /{{\rm I}}/-/\wedge/, /{{\rm i}}/-/{{\rm I}}/, /{{\varepsilon}}/-/\ae/}\)). Experiment 2 assessed auditory identification accuracy of words containing these four contrasts. Both bilingual groups demonstrated reduced accuracy in auditory identification of two English vowel contrasts absent in their native phonology (\(/{{\rm i}}/-/{{\rm I}}/, /{\varepsilon}/-/\ae/\)). For late- bilinguals, auditory identification difficulty was accompanied by poor visual word recognition for one difficult contrast (/i/-/I/). Bilinguals’ visual word recognition moderately correlated with their auditory identification of difficult contrasts. These results indicate that native language phonology can play a role in visual processing of second language words. However, this effect may be considerably constrained by orthographic systems of specific languages.     

Why Is There Still No Study of Cultural Equivalence in Standardized Cognitive Ability Tests?

To investigate how the culturalist perspective on investigating racial group differences in standardized cognitive ability tests has advanced, a content analysis of 28 studies citing J. E. Helms (1992) identified 7 general themes. Overall, researchers cited J. E. Helms (1992) as support for their own hypotheses but did not directly test the culturalist perspective. Para investigar cómo ha avanzado la perspectiva culturalista sobre la investigación de las diferencias entre grupos raciales en los tests estandarizados de abilidades cognitivas, un análisis de contenido de 28 estudios que citan a J. E. Helms (1992) identificó 7 temas generales. En conjunto, los investigadores citaron a J. E. Helms (1992) para apoyar sus propias hipótesis, pero no comprobaron la perspectiva culturalista directamente.     

Imagery and Recognition: Dissociable Measures of Memory?

An assumption of many theories of visual cognition is that imagery tasks and picture recognition tasks tap the same kind of memory processes (i.e. visual), implying that these two types of tests can be used as interchangeable measures of visual memory. In this paper, we investigated whether articulatory suppression—a variable known to improve imagery performance—has a similar effect on picture recognition performance. In Experiment 1, subjects performed either an imagery task or a recognition task while engaging or not in articulatory suppression; in Experiment 2, the same subjects performed first the imagery task, and then the recognition task, while engaging or not in articulatory suppression. When the type of task was manipulated between subjects (Experiment 1), imagery performance was significantly improved by articulatory suppression. In contrast, recognition performance was significantly impaired by the introduction of articulatory suppression. In accordance with results of Experiment 1, in Experiment 2 imagery and recognition performance were found to be unrelated. However, when the same subjects performed both tasks, the opposite effect of articulatory suppression on imagery vs recognition performance was observed only on the first item. It does appear that when the imagery task and the picture recognition task are performed in isolation, performance is found to be independent, suggesting that the two tasks are mediated by different mechanisms. However, when a within-subjects design is used, performance in one task can be contaminated by the presence of the other task.     

Is there an ivory tower in reality?

What is the measure of the social responsibility of scientists? Even if technology is not just applied science, the scientist cannot simply waive responsibility for the negative manifestations of technological progress borne out of scientific research. However, there are limits to the practicable realization of any moral maxims in this sphere, concerning, for instance, the very awareness of the future consequences of basic research. Insofar as it is possible to believe in a distinction between pure and applied research, there exists a difference in the corresponding measure of social responsibility for scientists.     

Is there an assignment of top and bottom during symmetry perception?

We report data from a discrimination task in which participants had to decide whether a single-item display was either vertically symmetric or asymmetric. This decision was found to be easier when items with a top bottom polarity were placed in an orientation where the wide end was the base of the stimulus and the narrow end was the top. The difference in reaction times between this orientation and its inversion was about 10 ms. We suggest that top and bottom labels are assigned to stimuli during the detection of bilateral symmetry.     

Is Anonymity an Artifact in Ethnographic Research?

While anonymity is a widely-held goal in research-ethics review policies, it is a virtually unachievable goal in ethnographic and qualitative research. This paper explores how anonymity is undermined in the data-gathering, analysis, and publication stages in ethnography. It also examines problems associated with maintaining a collective identity. What maintains anonymity, however, are the natural accretions of daily life, the underuse of data, and the remoteness of place and time between the gathering-data stage and the eventual publications of findings.     

Is nevtral NEUTRAL? Visual similarity effects in the early phases of written-word recognition

For simplicity, contemporary models of written-word recognition and reading have unspecified feature/letter levels—they predict that the visually similar substituted-letter nonword PEQPLE is as effective at activating the word PEOPLE as the visually dissimilar substituted-letter nonword PEYPLE. Previous empirical evidence on the effects of visual similarly across letters during written-word recognition is scarce and nonconclusive. To examine whether visual similarity across letters plays a role early in word processing, we conducted two masked priming lexical decision experiments (stimulus-onset asynchrony = 50 ms). The substituted-letter primes were visually very similar to the target letters (u/v in Experiment 1 and i/j in Experiment 2; e.g., nevtral–NEUTRAL). For comparison purposes, we included an identity prime condition (neutral–NEUTRAL) and a dissimilar-letter prime condition (neztral-NEUTRAL). Results showed that the similar-letter prime condition produced faster word identification times than the dissimilar-letter prime condition. We discuss how models of written-word recognition should be amended to capture visual similarity effects across letters.     

Is there an age deficit in the selection of mental sets?

Efficient selection of actions is dependent on higher-level constraints (mental sets) on lower-level selection. This paper explores the hypothesis that ageing leads to specific impairments associated with higher-level selection between mental sets. Indirect evidence for such a deficit comes from occasional findings of age differences in situations with high executive-control demands (e.g., Mayr & Kliegl, 1993) that are not easily explained in terms of other factors, such as general slowing or working memory parameters. More direct evidence comes from recent results with the so-called task-switching paradigm. Specifically, age-sensitive set-selection processes are indicated by age differences in “global selection costs” (i.e., the response-time difference between task-switching blocks and single-task blocks) which seem to be particularly large when demands in terms of “keeping competing mental sets apart” are high. Finally, data from a new variant of the task-switching paradigm (the “fade-out paradigm”) are reported which show that age differences in global costs persist substantially beyond a phase in which set-selection is actually necessary. Generally, evidence is consistent with the view that in older age, a costly set-selection mode of processing dominates over the more efficient within-set-selection mode of processing, possibly because of a problem with maintaining distinct representations of what ought to be done in the face of competing representations of what could be done in principle.     

Is Obstructive Sleep Apnoea Related to Neuropsychological Function in Healthy Older Adults? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Previous systematic reviews and meta-analyses have identified cognitive deficits in adults with obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA). However, quantitative analysis of the association between OSA and neuropsychological performance has not been conducted specifically in older adults, for whom there is a greater risk of cognitive decline. We searched Medline, Embase and PsycINFO through August 2016 for studies describing associations between OSA and neuropsychological outcomes in people aged>50 years. Meta-analyses were performed on these studies for overall cognition and within cognitive domains. Subgroup analyses were performed taking into account risk of bias and moderating differences in study design. 13 studies met eligibility criteria for analysis. A small negative association was found between OSA and all neuropsychological outcomes combined, g=0.18(95% CI 0.04–0.32), and in memory and processing speed domains. Small case-control studies from sleep clinic populations observed the greatest associations, while larger cohort studies from community samples illustrated no association. Analysis accounting for publication bias resulted in a null overall association, g=0.02 (95%CI -0.12 to 0.16). Associations between OSA and cognition in later life are highly variable and the findings differ based on the type and setting of study. It appears some older adults may be at risk of cognitive impairments attributable to OSA; however, the risk of bias renders the evidence inconclusive. High quality research is warranted in clinically diagnosed OSA patients as well as those already experiencing neuropsychological impairment and who may be regarded at higher risk of further cognitive decline.     

Is there an evolutionary advantage of schizophrenia?

Schizophrenia is a universal disorder with strongly genetic aetiology. A constant prevalence rate, universally, in the face of reduced fecundity leads to the argument here that an evolutionary advantage exists, but not solely for schizophrenia. Possible areas of advantage are examined and it is argued that schizophrenia exists as a costly trade-off, in the evolution of Homo sapiens, as a by-product of a yet unknown uniquely human quality. The reason it has stayed in existence is due to a combination of advantages bestowed upon the kin, the group and, to a lesser extent, individuals who suffer from the disorder; these all contribute a different type of advantage, each of which alone would not be sufficient. Further, the evidence for the other advantages alone lack the rigour of evidence seen in the by-product theories, which provide as yet unparalleled comprehensive evolutionary evidence.     

Specificity of auditory implicit and explicit memory: Is perceptual priming for environmental sounds exemplar specific?

Previous research (Stuart & Jones, 1995) has suggested that identification of environmental sounds may be mediated by abstract sound recognition units. This article reports the results of four repetition priming experiments that find evidence to the contrary. Participants attempted to identify environmental sounds from the initial sound stems (Experiments 1 and 2) or when the sounds were embedded in white noise (Experiments 3 and 4). Repetition of an identical exemplar sound led to more priming than did exposure to a different exemplar, provided that the perceptual difference between the two different exemplars was sufficiently large. Such an exemplar specificity effect was independent of the depth of prior encoding. A similar exemplar specificity effect was also found in explicit stem-cued recall (Experiments 1 and 2) and recognition (Experiment 3). Depth of encoding dissociated performance on tests of repetition priming and explicit memory. These results suggest that a significant amount of specific information is remembered, both implicitly and explicitly, to characterize individual exemplars of a sound category.