儿童攻击行为的短期追踪干预研究:从社会信息加工的角度

以社会信息加工模型(Social Information-Processing Model,简称SIP)为理论依据设计社会认知干预方案,将被试(包括132名攻击性儿童)分为实验组、安慰剂(阅读)组和控制组进行短期追踪干预研究,在此基础上考察该干预方案对减少儿童的攻击行为以及提高社会信息加工能力的作用。研究结果表明:(1)该干预方案对提高攻击性儿童的社会信息加工能力有明显的即时效果和持续效果,具体表现为该方案有效地减少了攻击性儿童的敌意归因偏见和攻击行为的产生,有助于攻击性儿童建立关系目标并正确认知攻击行为的后果;(2)班主任评定三组儿童的攻击行为显著减少,评定结果可能受到期望效应的影响。     

2~3岁儿童在分配情境下的公平敏感性

公平敏感性是指个体对感知到的公平和不公平的稳定而个性化的反应, 其表现为个体对公平的不同偏好。本研究旨在考察2~3岁儿童公平敏感性发展特点, 并进一步探究分配情境、分配数量和分配结果等因素对儿童公平敏感性的影响。实验1采用VOE范式, 在第三方任务情境下, 考察130名2~3岁儿童公平敏感性的发展特点, 结果发现在VOE范式下, 2~3岁儿童公平敏感性随着年龄增长而上升, 3岁~3岁3个月儿童的公平敏感性发展最明显。实验2, 选取60名处于公平敏感性发展最明显的3岁~3岁3个月的儿童比较其在不同分配情境、分配数量以及分配结果下的注视时间差异。结果表明, 在有接受者情境下儿童公平敏感性显著高于无接受者情境下的公平敏感性, 并且公平敏感性受分配数量的影响。     

儿童公平感的起源

在近期心理学研究中,儿童公平早期发展观向经典建构主义理论发起挑战,认为儿童的公平感是与生俱来的。然而,从儿童婴儿早期表现出的公平感到其自觉实践公平行为还存在差距与研究争议。儿童公平感的发展为其分享、合作等社会行为的发展奠定了基础,具有重大的社会意义。在未来研究中,建议完善儿童公平感发生的理论与其发展机制。     

儿童公平行为的发展——来自博弈实验的证据

公平正义一直是人类不懈追求的目标,是心理学、经济学等多个学科共同关注的一个重要课题。发展心理学常采用故事法对儿童的公平认知进行研究,博弈范式的引入则为研究儿童的公平行为提供了新的方法和角度。该文主要介绍了独裁者博弈和最后通牒博弈中儿童公平行为的发展趋势,并对已有的矛盾性结论进行了原因分析,探讨了公平行为的内团体偏差效应、公平的本质是意图公平还是结果公平、以及心理理论与公平行为的关系等问题。最后,该文指出今后对儿童公平行为的研究应充分考虑社会情境与社会认知能力的影响。     

儿童社会适应的社会信息加工模型及其特殊应用

亲社会儿童具有独特的社会信息加工特点:友善的归因倾向,关系性目标定向,对亲社会行为反应做积极评价等。应用SIP范式对儿童亲社会行为进行研究,不仅有助于研究者更清楚地揭示社会认知与亲社会行为之间的关系,理解儿童社会性发展的机制,而且还对儿童的行为矫正和训练具有积极意义。但是,SIP模型应用于亲社会行为研究时在理论模型及方法工具上还存在一定的局限。     

学习障碍儿童的社会信息处理、依恋及情绪调节特点

SIP是儿童社交能力的一个重要组成部分,它给儿童提供一个如何处理及解读社会情境中发生的社会线索的模型,并且根据这些线索作出行为和情绪上的决定。作为一个社会认知能力,SIP被认为是学习障碍儿童中最具有挑战性的领域之一。潜在的认知加工过程和情绪处理过程对SIP六阶段步骤起重要作用。过去的研究注重儿童认知能力对SIP能力的作用。在此研究中,我们新增了儿童的情感纽带如(安全依恋)以及强调儿童管理情绪的能力对儿童SIP能力的作用。本文通过对学习障碍儿童的情绪管理、依恋质量及社会信息加工特点的研究,希望提供关于安全依恋和情绪管理在学习障碍儿童中社会信息加工的作用一些理论参考。     

儿童社交退缩、同伴关系和社会信息加工特点的关系

应用班级戏剧问卷在小学3-5年级儿童中筛选退缩儿童121名（安静退缩52名,活跃退缩47名,混合退缩22名）,同时设立对照组。集体施测同伴提名、朋友提名和友谊质量问卷,并对其中部分儿童实施社会信息加工的结构性访谈,探讨童年中期不同类型社交退缩儿童的同伴关系和社会信息加工特点之间的关系。结果表明,安静退缩儿童的同伴关系与一般儿童无显著差异,但活跃退缩和混合退缩儿童的同伴关系较差;活跃退缩儿童和混合退缩儿童与一般儿童相比,在社会信息加工过程中存在更多的差异;儿童的同伴关系在社交退缩行为与社会信息加工能力之间起到部分中介的作用;可从同伴关系和反应执行水平两个方面综合预测儿童的退缩行为。     

6～8岁儿童表现公平行为的发展:社会信号的作用

采用现场情境实验探究社会信号作用下,6~8岁儿童表现公平行为的发展,实验1选取270名6~8岁儿童,采用资源分配任务考察儿童在结果公平情境下表现公平行为的发展,实验2选取300名6~8岁儿童,采用抛硬币任务考察儿童在结果不公平情境下表现公平行为的发展。结果显示:儿童表现公平行为存在显著的年龄差异,有无社会信号条件对儿童公平行为存在显著影响。结论:社会信号作用下儿童会更多地做出表现公平行为而非本质公平。     

6~8岁儿童公平行为的内在动机：社会信号的作用

公平行为是个体对自己或别人不偏不倚的行为,存在本质公平与表现公平。本质公平,即个体本身渴望公平,能够依据某种公平原则做出公平行为;表现公平,即个体在行为上做出公平的表现而实质并非来自本身的意愿。研究1选取270名6~8岁儿童,采用资源分配任务考察儿童在有无社会信号作用下表现公平行为的发展特点,研究2选取300名6~8岁儿童,采用抛硬币任务来考察儿童是否会用公平程序来掩盖其不公平行为。结果表明：(1)有无社会信号条件对儿童公平行为存在显著影响,并存在显著的年龄差异。有社会信号条件下,儿童更多选择公平行为,无社会信号条件下,儿童更多选择对自己有利的不公平分配。(2)儿童选择通过抛硬币的方式来获取奖品的人数随着年龄增长显著上升,抛硬币的儿童报告自己得到好的奖品的概率显著多于得到不好奖品的概率。结论：社会信号作用下儿童更多会做出表现公平而非本质公平。     

4～8岁儿童公平认知与行为差距:社会比较的作用

公平是人们社会交往中采用的一种综合考虑自我和他人利益的策略,幼儿依据何种标准进行资源分配包括两个层面:一是理解,体现为公平认知;二是应用,体现为公平行为,儿童对公平的理解和应用会有一个发展过程。实验1,采用独裁者博弈范式考察4~8岁儿童公平认知与实际分配行为差距。结果显示:4~8岁儿童均已具有公平认知,公平行为随着年龄增长而增加,二者之间的差距逐渐减小,直到8岁儿童公平行为与公平认知趋于一致。实验2,探索社会比较、不公平程度和有无代价对儿童分配行为的影响。结果表明三者对儿童分配行为均存在显著的影响,儿童宁可付出代价也倾向于避免自身处于不利地位,和确保自己相对有利。结论:儿童公平认知与行为存在显著差距,儿童公平决策的发展包含了克服使别人得到比自己少的强有力的社会比较过程,社会比较对分配行为存在重要的作用。     

"I had so much it didn't seem fair": Eight-year-olds reject two forms of inequity

Research using economic games has demonstrated that adults are willing to sacrifice rewards in order to prevent inequity both when they receive less than a social partner (disadvantageous inequity) and when they receive more (advantageous inequity). We investigated the development of both forms of inequity aversion in 4- to 8-year-olds using a novel economic game in which children could accept or reject unequal allocations of candy with an unfamiliar peer. The results showed that 4- to 7-year-olds rejected disadvantageous offers, but accepted advantageous offers. By contrast, 8-year-olds rejected both forms of inequity. These results suggest that two distinct mechanisms underlie the development of the two forms of inequity aversion.     

Sex differences,sex-role orientation,and reward allocations

In study 1, 52 male and 52 female undergraduates allocated rewards to pairs of children for their performances in team and competitive situations. Males allocated rewards more equitably, especially when allocating to boys in competition, while females allocated rewards more equally. Boys, but not girls, who did more work received more rewards than their partner; and children with greater work inputs under competitive conditions received more rewards than children in team conditions. In study 2, the sex-role orientation of 60 college students was found to be related to their reward allocations. Males and females with a masculine sex-role orientation allocated rewards equitably, while individuals with a feminine sex-role orientation allocated rewards equally. Results indicated that sex and situational differences in reward allocations are affected by sex-role orientation and differential socialization practices by adults.Portions of study 1 were presented at the Midwestern Psychological Association Meeting, Chicago, May 1978.     

PERFORMANCE ON THE TEST OF MEMORY MALINGERING IN A MIXED PEDIATRIC SAMPLE

Performance on the Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM) was evaluated in a sample of 100 consecutively referred 6 to 16–year-old children with a wide range of clinical diagnoses. In the complete sample, 97 children met actuarially defined criteria for sufficient effort on the TOMM. Two children were correctly identified as providing suboptimal effort and only one case was a possible false positive. Performance on the second trial of the TOMM did not vary with gender, ethnicity, parental occupation, performance on an independent memory test, or length of coma. Although younger children tended to be somewhat less efficient on the TOMM than older children, more than 90% of children in the 6-8 years range met criteria originally developed for adults for sufficient effort on the TOMM. It is concluded that the TOMM is a potentially useful measure of effort in the clinical neuropsychological evaluation of school-age children.     

小学儿童一维空间方位传递性推理能力的发展

研究了小学儿童一维空间方位传递性推理能力的发展水平及认知策略 ,同时 ,对心理模型理论进行了检验。被试为城市中等小学 7岁、9岁、11岁儿童各 2 4名 ,男女各半。 4种实验任务分别为三前提单模型、三前提双模型、四前提单模型和四前提双模型。采用个别实验 ,儿童在前提呈现的情况下进行推理。主要研究结果 :(1)从小学 7岁到 11岁 ,儿童的一维空间方位传递性推理能力明显提高 ,7岁儿童初步形成了一维空间方位推理能力 ,9岁和 11岁基本具有了这种能力 ;(2 )随着年龄增长 ,使用模型建构策略解决问题的儿童人次越来越多 ,绝大部分 11岁儿童都能使用这一策略进行推理。但即使儿童使用了模型建构策略 ,他们的推理成绩也没有反映出模型数量所造成的任务难度差异 ,即不符合心理模型理论关于模型数量的主要预期。     

Gender differences in distributive justice: The role of self-presentation revisited

Kidder, Bellettirie, and Cohn's [(1977) Secret Ambitions and Public Performances: The Effects of Anonymity on Reward Allocations Made by Men and Women, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 13, pp. 70–80] self-presentational account of gender differences in distributive justice was examined. Men and women attending two, primarily white, northeastern universities distributed a jointly earned reward between themselves and a hypothetical co-worker who was either a stranger or a friend and whose inferior task performance resulted from either low ability or low effort. Subjects made their allocations under both public and private conditions. Men allocated more equitably (i.e., according to co-worker input) in public than women did, whereas women allocated more equitably in private than men did, only when working with strangers who exerted low effort. In addition, among female subjects, private allocations to low-effort strangers were more equitable than public allocations. Among male subjects, however, public allocations to low-effort strangers were more equitable than private allocations. The conditions under which men make equitable allocations and women make equal allocations, and possible reasons for these differences, are discussed.This research was presented at the 62nd annual meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association, April 11–14, 1991, New York, NY. We are grateful to Brenda Major, Victor Benassi, Rebecca Warner, members of the University of New Hampshire Social Psychology Research Group, and two anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful comments on an earlier version of this paper.     

3～5岁幼儿基于面孔的信任判断的发展

本研究通过两个实验探讨了262名3~5岁幼儿基于面孔的信任判断能力及其年龄间差异。结果发现:(1)实验1中,当陌生面孔单张呈现时,3岁幼儿还不能正确地区分被成人评价为可信和不可信的面孔,而4、5岁幼儿已经能够基于面孔特征做出与成人基本一致的信任判断;(2)实验2中,当配对呈现可信vs.不可信两张面孔时,3~5岁幼儿都能够在日常交往情境中依据陌生交往者的面孔特征做出与成人基本一致的信任判断,并且随着年龄的增长,信任判断准确率逐步提高。这些结果表明幼儿从3岁开始已经能够基于面孔做出信任判断,随着年龄的增长,信任判断能力逐步发展。     

小学儿童两维空间方位传递性推理能力的发展

研究了小学儿童两维空间方位传递性推理能力的发展水平及认知策略,同时,对心理模型理论进行了检验。被试为城市中等小学7岁、9岁、11岁儿童各24名,男女各半。单模型和双模型两种实验任务均为四前提。采用个别实验,儿童在前提呈现的情况下进行推理。主要研究结果：（1）7岁儿童开始萌发了两维空间方位传递性推理能力,9岁儿童和11岁儿童的推理能力处于发展和提高过程中;（2）随着年龄增长,使用模型建构策略解决问题的儿童人次越来越多,绝大部分11岁儿童都能使用这一策略进行推理。但即使儿童使用了模型建构策略,他们的推理成绩也没有反映出模型数量所造成的任务难度差异,即不符合心理模型理论关于模型数量的主要预期;（3）即使儿童能自发生成模型建构策略,儿童在两维空间方位传递性推理中使用这一策略的有效性程度并不高。     

The effect of stimulus variability on children's judgements of quantity

This study investigates the effect of stimulus variability on development of the ability to make quantity judgements related to area. Participants were 241 children (aged 4, 5, 6, 8, and 12 years) and 82 university students, who were asked to compare the quantities in 2 sets of 5 chocolate bars of constant width but variable length. Participants indicated which set contained more chocolate or that the amounts of chocolate were equal. Judgement accuracy of 12-year-olds and adults decreased monotonically as the variance of bar lengths increased. In younger children, performance was low when variance was very low or very high, but accuracy was higher for intermediate levels of variance, thus resulting in an inverted U-shaped effect. This pattern was confirmed in a second experiment in which we controlled for a possible age-related response bias against “equal” judgements. Findings suggest that judgements of quantity are based on a mixture of learned heuristics and comparisons of approximate quantity representations, both of which develop throughout childhood.     

Children's and adolescents' intuitive judgements about distributive justice: Integrating need,effort, and luck

This study investigated the principles that children and adolescents rely on when allocating a resource fairly. In a series of three experiments, 51 Swiss children (aged 7 and 9 years) and 309 German children (aged 6, 9, and 15 years) participated. A different situational context was presented in each experiment, where luck, need and effort of two protagonists were systematically varied. Primary-school children relied mainly on need when making distributive justice judgements. Effort became more prominent as the allocation principle in adolescence. Equality occurred rarely in all age groups. Integrational capacity and the ability to differentiate between the three situational contexts increased from childhood to adolescence. The data suggest the conclusion that the development of distributive justice decisions has both generalized and context-specific components.