VISUAL INTERACTION AND DISTANCE

Argyle & Dean (1965) predicted that, as the distance increased between a confederate who stared continuously and a naive subject, so the naive subject would increasingly return the confederate's gaze into the eyes. Their findings were held to support the prediction, but Stephenson & Rutter (1970) offered an alternative explanation. They showed that, in the Argyle & Dean situation, observers are increasingly likely with increasing distance to record as gaze directed at the eyes, gaze which is actually directed away from the eyes. In the present experiment, pairs of naive subjects took up positions equidistant from a one-way screen behind which two cameras were located. Each pair held a 5 min. conversation, nine pairs at 2 ft. apart, nine at 6 ft. and nine at 10 ft. The interactions were recorded on videotape, and four observers subsequently scored Looking and Speech from the recordings for each subject independently. By means of zoom lens photography and a ‘split-screen’ recording technique, it was ensured that any relationship between visual behaviour and distance could not be an artifact of observer performance. The results indicated that, while neither the duration of individuals' Looking nor the number of Looks were significantly affected by distance, the two measures of mutual Looking, namely the duration of eye-contact, and mutual focus (the proportion of a pair's Looking which results in eye-contact), both increased with distance.     

ANTICIPATED INTERACTION AND INFORMATION SEEKING

The information that persons possess about others influences social judgments and behavior. Previous analyses have shown that, when expecting to meet with a target, persons recall comparatively more information about the target. Those analyses, however, have provided no indication as to the type of information persons recall nor the range of recall across an action sequence. Moreover, there is no present understanding of the recall performance of persons who observe a target prior to being induced to expect interaction, although such a situation may be common in social contexts. This analysis sought to address these issues. Subjects viewed a videotaped interaction between a female (target) and a male. Subsequent analysis of subjects' recall revealed meaningful between-group differences.     

评一次心脑关系的论战

本文首先介绍一次有关心脑关系的论争并评论它所开展的方式。然后评论此次论争的核心问题和几种主要的论点。最后就答辩论文中的思想转折和理论归络进行分析。     

THE CONTINUING INTERACTION OF SCIENCE AND RELIGION

Abstract. Stephen I Gould's notion of non‐overlapping magisteria (NOMA) is neither experientially supported nor rationally justifiable. Influence flows between science and religion, as when evolutionary thinking encouraged theology to adopt a kenotic view of the Creator's act of allowing creatures to be and to make themselves. Alleged simplistic dichotomies between science and religion, such as motivated belief contrasted with fideistic assertion, are seen to be false. Promising topics in the currently vigorous dialogue between science and religion include relational ontology, eschatological credibility, and ethical issues relating to advances in human genetics.     

ATTRIBUTIONAL CONFIDENCE AND UNCERTAINTY IN INITIAL INTERACTION

Attributional confidence, either in retroactive explanations of behavior or in proactive predictions of behavior, is discussed as a way of operationalizing uncertainty. Instruments for assessing attributional confidence either through the proactive mode or through the retroactive mode are constructed, and reliability and validity evidence are presented. Hypotheses derived from the axioms of uncertainty reduction theory are tested. Attributional confidence may be one way of making the nominal construct of uncertainty subject to direct testing.     

亲子互动研究及其进展

亲子互动研究是从父母与儿童互动的角度来研究父母与儿童的交往行为,在近几十年来越来越受到国内外研究者的关注。该文从亲子互动影响因素和亲子互动与儿童心理、行为发展的关系两个方面介绍了亲子互动的有关研究,同时又从有缺陷儿童的亲子互动和父亲在亲子互动中的作用介绍了亲子互动研究的进展。     

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND RELATIONAL INTERDEPENDENCES IN SOCIAL INTERACTION

This research argues for the integration of individual difference and relational models in understanding social interaction. Two longitudinal studies are reported that investigate dyadic perceptions within a small group context. A round-robin design and variance partitioning procedures were used to isolate consistent individual differences and unique relational interdependencies in perceptions of leadership, openness, and liking. Both studies indicate that the magnitudes of individual level consistencies and unique relational interdependence vary as a function of characteristics assessed and the length of the relationship. The implications for conceptualizing and measuring relational aspects of interaction and for understanding the interface between individual difference and relational explanations for social interaction are discussed.     

DEGREES AND DIMENSIONS OF SOCIAL INTERACTION IN TRIBAL GROUPINGS

On a administré un inventaire de quinze questions sociométriques à onze groupes d'élèves d'écoles primaires et secondaires, d'une école d'instituteurs, et d'une école pour jeunes mineurs de la region minière (Copperbelt) de Zambie (N = 274). Les choix ont été analysés en prenant l'origine tribale comme base de classification pour les groupements dans les classes et pour tous les répondants. l'origine tribale représente une catégorie importante pour l'interaction sociale à l'intérieur des groupes institutionnels quand la distance est grande. Les dimensions de l'inventaire, que fait apparaître une analyse factorielle basée sur les groupements par tribu des répondants, suivent trois axes et pourraient correspondre à l'autorité (leadership) dans un système institutionnel, l'acceptation par les pairs et l'origine ethnique. l'A. discute de ces résultats en se référant à d'autres recherches sur la distance sociale et montre quelles modifications de la théorie traditionnelle ils suggèrent.     

CROWDING,TASK PERFORMANCE,AND COMMUNICATIVE INTERACTION IN YOUTH AND OLD AGE

Following Altman's privacy regulation model, this research was based on the assumption that the relationship between achieved and desired levels of privacy is a major determinant of the experience of crowding in small groups. Further, on the basis of evidence that advancing age is associated with a chronic lack of communicative interaction, it was assumed that the achieved level of privacy among elderly persons generally is greater than that experienced by young adults. Given these assumptions, it was predicted that the crowding threshold of young adults would be significantly lower than that of older persons. To test this hypothesis, the research varied conversation distance (close, far) and density (small room, large room) and assessed the quality of communicative interaction and task performance among small groups of college-age females and retired women over 60 years of age. Results showed that task performance among younger subjects deteriorated in close interaction conditions, whereas the performance of older subjects was improved by spatial intrusion. Further, older subjects exhibited positive communication behaviors in response to close conversation, high-density conditions, while younger subjects responded either with negative communication behaviors or were unaffected by spatial restriction. Finally, the research confirmed previous findings that conversation distance is a more important determinant of the experience of crowding in small groups than physical density. The significance of the results for Altman's privacy regulation model and their implications for the study of human communication behaviors were discussed.     

LONELINESS,PARASOCIAL INTERACTION,AND LOCAL TELEVISION NEWS VIEWING

A conceptual model was developed predicting parasocial interaction from both a social interaction need due to loneliness and instrumental television news use. Questionnaires were completed by 329 persons. Pearson and partial correlations supported hypotheses linking loneliness with less interpersonal communication and both loneliness and parasocial interaction with more television reliance. Loneliness and parasocial interaction were not correlated. Canonical correlation analysis supported expectations that instrumental news viewing for information was related to more parasocial interaction and perceived news realism; viewing news for exciting entertainment, news affinity, and news viewing levels correlated positively with this pattern. Ritualized news viewing for time consumption was related to more television viewing, but to less news viewing, duration, and affinity. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis identified news affinity, perceived news realism, and information news viewing motives as salient predictors of parasocial interaction with a favorite local television news personality. Implications of results were discussed in light of uses and gratifications research and communication interaction.     

视觉和动觉在定位中的相互作用

在触觉定位的研究中,一些研究者早已看到:动觉和触觉同时参与比单靠触觉进行定位发生的誤差要小,利用视觉表象可提高定位的准确性,在施用刺激时,视觉参与(被試看着主試施予刺激)使定位誤差更加減少。近年来有的研究者从运动知觉和表象方面研究視觉和动觉相互作用問題,結果发現:两次試驗中,视觉均参与下,定位是相     

LEADERSHIP EMERGENCE AND SOURCE VALENCE: CONCEPTS IN SUPPORT OF INTERACTION THEORY AND MEASUREMENT

This study sought to determine what perceived characteristics discriminate between leaders and nonleaders in a small group situation. After interacting for three work periods, members of several groups evaluated one another on a source valence instrument containing measures of credibility, attraction, and homophily. During subsequent meetings, a computerized technique (PROANA5) was used to analyze group interaction and identify group leaders. Results indicated that three variables: task attraction, extroversion, and character provided reasonably accurate classifications of leaders and nonleaders. Findings were discussed in terms of Gibb's interaction theory of group leadership.     

INTERACTION AND INTERSECTION: THE CONSTELLATION OF EMOTIONAL STABILITY AND EXTRAVERSION IN PREDICTING PERFORMANCE

This study investigated the constellation of 2 Big 5 traits—Emotional Stability and Extraversion—in predicting job performance. Two forms of the constellation, one indirect (a statistical interaction) and the other direct (a measure of the intersection between the traits from the Big 5 circumplex), were used to predict job performance. Data were collected from employees and their supervisors at a regional health and fitness center. Results indicated that both measures predicted performance, even when controlling for the "main effects" of Emotional Stability and Extraversion, as well as 2 other relevant Big 5 traits (Agreeableness and Conscientiousness). These results suggest that the combination of Emotional Stability and Extraversion—reflecting a "happy" or "buoyant" personality—may be more important to performance than either trait in isolation.     

The life and times of PSI

This paper describes the essential features of the personalized system of instruction (PSI). Results from outcome research examining the effectiveness of PSI-based courses relative to traditional methods provide unequivocal support for the superiority of PSI. Parametric studies, or component analyses, show that the mastery requirement, immediate performance feedback, and review units are the key features underlying high quality student performances in PSI courses. The use of student proctors as peer-tutors, optional lectures, and selfpacing do not, in and of themselves, appear to be vital to student success in PSI courses. Despite its superiority, PSI has not supplanted traditional methods as the dominant pedagogical system in higher education. Difficulties inherent in overcoming the inertia of the lecture within our established instructional system, the implications of PSI for that system, and the Zeitgeist that permeates educational reform are the major obstacles to widespread adoption of PSI.     

THE TRAINING AND GENERALIZATION OF SOCIAL INTERACTION SKILLS WITH AUTISTIC YOUTH

Two experiments were conducted to increase the initiations and duration of social interactions between autistic and nonhandicapped youths. Experiment 1 taught two autistic youths to initiate and elaborate social interactions with three age-appropriate and commonly used leisure objects; a radio, a video game, and gum. The students were first taught to use the objects and subsequently instructed in the related social skills. The youths generalized these social responses to other nonhandicapped peers in the same leisure setting. A second experiment trained a third autistic youth to emit similar social leisure skills. The use of the leisure objects and the related social skills were taught at the same time. The autistic youth learned these skills and generalized them to other handicapped peers in the same leisure setting. The importance of teaching generalized social responding in particular subenvironments was emphasized.