CARACTÉRISTIQUES PSYCHOLOGIQUES DE LA PRISE DE RISQUE MONÉTAIRE DES JOUEURS ET DES NON-JOUEURS À LA ROULETTE*

This study compares different dimensions of the personality, the perception of control and risk-taking behavior of gamblers and non-gamblers exposed to American roulette. The analyses of the data revealed that no significant differences emerged among the two groups on personality or perception of control. Although gamblers started the game by stacking more money than non-gamblers, the latter rapidly bet as much as the regular gamblers. Furthermore, risk-taking behavior increased as the game progressed. The practical implications of the data are discussed in relation to the psychology of gambling.     

Nature des représentations du langage écrit aux débuts de l'apprentissage de la lecture: un modèle interprétatif

The main objective of this study is to test a knowledge-based simulation model, elaborated in a previous longitudinal research in order to explain reading errors produced by first-grade children. This model relies on two assumptions: (1) in the beginning of the grapho-phonological acquisition, the child tries to extract, from the series of letters which forms a word, graphic patterns corresponding to an oral syllable; (2) these patterns are stored either in an ordered representation or in a non-ordered representation. Permutation errors, often pointed out in this phase of reading acquisition, would then be the mark of a non-ordered representation of the graphic patterns. Two experiments were proposed to new first-grade children, in the middle of the school year. In experiment 1, they had to detect an oral syllable in written pseudo-words in which the first trigram did or did not correspond to the legal order. In experiment 2, they had to read aloud trisyllabic pseudo-words in which the first trigram was presented in four different orders. Reading errors correspond to the predictions our model allows. Moreover, the absence of correlation between the two tasks suggests that the knowledge activated depends on the type of activity.     

In search of a science‐based application: A learning tool for reading acquisition

This is a story about the fate of a psychological application: from its conception to the optimistic vision surrounding its future. We hope that this application – an enjoyable learning game (www or mobile phone‐based, available free of charge to the end users) for children – can at best help millions of children in their reading acquisition in the future. Its basis was created by following intensively the development of children with (N = 107) and without (N = 92) genetic (familial) risk for dyslexia from birth to puberty in the Jyväskylä Longitudinal study of Dyslexia (JLD)‐project. We summarize some of the major findings of the JLD in order to facilitate understanding of the reasons and logic behind the development of the game. Originally intended as a research tool for reading acquisition, its potential for prevention of reading difficulties was quickly recognized.     

Do Computer-Based Games Facilitate Knowledge Acquisition and Retention?

This study investigated the effects of a gaming approach on knowledge acquisition and retention in military trainees. Three groups of trainees were presented with subject matter in paper-based prose form (text), paper-based question-and-answer form (test), or computer-based gaming form (game). These conditions were selected to investigate potential benefits of computer-based gaming over traditional paper-and-pencil media in terms of trainee performance and reaction. Results showed that participants assigned to the game condition scored significantly higher on a retention test com- pared to pretest performance. Furthermore, participants assigned to the game condition scored significantly higher on a retention test than did participants assigned to the text condition. Participants assigned to the test and text conditions showed no benefit from training in performance at the retention test. In addition, participants assigned to the game condition rated the training they received as more enjoyable and more effective than did those assigned to the other 2 conditions. Results are discussed in terms of the effectiveness of computer-based games for military training applications.     

ÉTUDE INTERCULTURELLE DES PRÉFÉRENCES MUSICALES

The question of socio-cultural relativism or universalism in aesthetic judgment is dealt with in a cross-cultural study of musical preferences. Four groups of subjects were compared: Japanese expert musicians, French professional musicians, French students in music and French non-musician students. Their task was to state their preference for one of the elements in ten pairs of excerpts of traditional Japanese music, representing three levels of complexity (Koto, Trio, Gagaku). In addition, the subjects were asked to give a general appreciation of the three styles. The analysis of the preferences was performed in three ways: intra-group and inter-groups variabilities were computed as well as the variability due to the musical style. The results can be summarized as follows: as far as a group judgment is possible in one or another culture (intra-group agreement), the preferences of two culturally different groups do not contrast as long as the judgment concerns rather simple objects; the degree of inter-cultural agreement, far from increasing with musical competence, decreases. On the other hand, the judgments of more complex pieces show an agreement only in groups with musical skill and, in this case, the preference of Japanese and French musicians are contrasting. Finally, it is pointed out that a minimal attractiveness of the material presented is necessary to obtain from the subjects valid comparisons instead of artificial.     

Impact of the Arrangement of Game Information on Recall Performance of Multiplayer Online Battle Arena Players

Individuals who have domain‐specific knowledge, such as chess players and dancers, have been found to use schemas to organize and anticipate information. We examined whether multiplayer online battle arena (MOBA) game players use a similar strategy. Participants were presented with a memory task where they recalled the status of game features as displayed on a mini‐map. The task contained two conditions: a condition where game features were arranged in a manner consistent with gameplay and a condition where game features were arranged in a random manner. Recall accuracy for highly structured game features was affected by whether a mini‐map was consistent or arbitrarily arranged and varied with participants' MOBA expertise. This is in line with previous expertise research that has found that knowledge of underlying probability structures of events contained within schemas is indicative of domain‐specific knowledge. This suggests that MOBA players can be used to study skill acquisition.Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Cross‐Cultural Relevance of Person‐Centered Counseling in Postapartheid South Africa

In this article, the need for effective cross‐cultural counseling in South Africa is emphasized against the background of the country's sociocultural context. The characteristics of person‐centered counseling that make it cross‐culturally suitable in the South African situation are discussed. Rogers's cross‐cultural group work during his visits to South Africa is briefly described. The ways in which specific cross‐cultural obstacles can be overcome by means of the person‐centered approach are pointed out. The relationship between person‐centered counseling and traditional African healing practices is described. Finally, ways to address the language barriers in cross‐cultural counseling in South Africa are discussed.     

NÉCESSITÉ ET SIGNIFICATION DES RECHERCHES COMPARATIVES EN PSYCHOLOGIE GÉNÉTIQUE

Need and meaning of comparative studies in genetic psychology. — The comparative studies in the field of genetic psychology are indispensable for Psychology in general and also for Sociology, because only such studies allow us to separate the effects of biological or mental factors from those of social and cultural influences on the formation and the socialization of individuals. Relevant to this discussion is the well-known issue between culturalistic psychoanalysts like Fromm, Horney, etc., and classical freudian psychoanalysts who reduce the whole individual development to an endogenous evolution of « instinct ». In the field of cognitive functions to which this paper is devoted, at least four kinds of various factors must be distinguished, the respective influences of which can be separated through comparative studies : I. Biological factors depending on the “epigenetic” system (maturation of nervous system, etc.). These factors probably explain the sequential aspects (constant and necessary order) of the stages in the development of operative intelligence. However, if only these factors were acting, the stages would not only appear in a sequence, but at the same ages, whereas in fact, the ages where a stage appears differ from one environment to another. 2. Equilibration or autoregulation factors, determining behavior and thought in their various specific activities. They correspond to the sequential forms in general coordination of the actions of individuals as interacting with their physical environment; such intervening regulations are probably at the origin of the mental operations themselves, especially logical - mathematical operations. 3. General socialization factors, which are identical for all societies : cooperations - discussions - oppositions - exchanges, etc., between children or between adults or between adults and children. These factors 3 are closely related with the factors 2, because the general coordination of actions concerns inter-individual as so as intra-individual actions. 4. Factors related to educational and cultural transmission, which differ from one society to another; they are those we usually have in mind when we say briefly “social factors”. To discuss the influence of these four factors, Mohseni's study on Teheran school children and illiterate rural children is given as an example. Three results were obtained : (1) For “conservation” tasks, the same stages of intellectual development are observed for urban and rural children, in Iran as well as in Europe. (2) For these same tasks, a systematic delay of two to three years is observed among rural children with respect to Teheran children. (3) For performance tests (i.e. Porteus, Goodenough, etc.) there is a delay of four and primarily five years. These data seem to show that there is some sequential order of the stages which depends partially on the factors I. But, the ages for each stage are not constant, showing the factors 2 and 3 are intervening in a probably inseparable way. On the other hand, the difference between the actual operative results and the performance tests seems to indicate that a distinction might be made between the factors of general coordination (factors 2 and 3) and the educational transmissions (factors 4). About these last factors, the three and four year delays observed by Canadian psychologists working in Martinique with school children (French curriculum) in operative tasks (like conservations) seem to indicate that the general operations depend less on school than on the activities themselves of children or in general on the adult stimulations in the environment. We must pay special attention to the problems raised by language. In some precise and systematic experiments in Geneva, Sinclair shows children on the “preoperative” level (i.e. with no conservation…) do not spontaneously use the same language as operative children : the former use chiefly “scale” words (“much” or “many”, “little” or “few”, “large”, “small”) and the latter use chiefly “vector” words (“more”, “less”). If the younger subjects are submitted to a verbal training, they do learn to use the older children's language, but it only results in very little operative improvement (about one case out of 10 subjects on the average). Therefore, replicating the same experiments in countries speaking different languages would be very interesting. For instance, in the Turkish language, there is only one “vector” word, i.e. “again”; so that the Turk says “again much, again many” to say “more”. Then, the question is to know whether a change will be observed for the stages of logical-mathematical operations or whether these operations will be found everywhere with their identical common background; it seems that this last conclusion has already been observed in Aden (Hyde), Hong Kong (Goodnow), South Africa (Price-Williams). In conclusion, the kind of psychology we develop in our social environments, remains conjectural as long as comparative extensive and systematical research is not available; a great effort is still to be made in this direction.     

Interactive apps prevent gender discrepancies in early‐grade mathematics in a low‐income country in sub‐Sahara Africa

Globally, gender differences are reported in the early acquisition of reading and mathematics as girls tend to outperform boys in reading, whereas boys tend to outperform girls in mathematics. This can have long‐term impact resulting in an under‐representation of girls in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics subjects. Recent research suggests that sociocultural factors account for differences across genders in the acquisition of these foundational skills. In this study, we investigated whether a new technology‐based intervention, that included activities accessible to both boys and girls, can reduce gender differences from emerging during the early primary school years. The novel instructional method used in this study employed apps developed by onebillion© delivered individually through touch‐screen tablets. Over a series of experiments conducted in Malawi, a low‐income country in sub‐Sahara Africa, we found that when children were exposed to standard pedagogical practice typical gender differences emerged over the first grade (Experiment 1). In contrast, boys and girls learnt equally well with the new interactive apps designed to support the learning of mathematics (Experiment 2) and reading (Experiment 3). When implemented at the start of primary education, before significant gender discrepancies become established, this novel technology‐based intervention can prevent significant gender effects for mathematics. These results demonstrate that different instructional practices influence the emergence of gender disparities in early mathematics. Digital interventions can mitigate gender differences in countries where standard pedagogical instruction typically hinders girls from acquiring early mathematical skills at the same rate as boys. A video abstract of this article can be viewed at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=55x-6hhAY9M&feature=youtu.be     

Social norms and the traditional deterrence game

Bicchieri (The grammar of society: The nature and dynamics of norms, 2006, xi) presents a formal analysis of norms that answers the questions of “when, how, and to what degree” norms affect human behavior in the play of games. The purpose of this paper is to apply a variation of the Bicchieri norms analysis to generate a model of norms-based play of the traditional deterrence game (Zagare and Kilgour, Int Stud Q 37:1–27, 1993; Morrow, Game theory for political scientists, 1994), the paradigmatic model of conflict initiation in International Relations. The deterrence game is modeled here as a sequential decision problem. As such, our analysis is an adaptation of Bicchieri’s game-theoretic formalization of norms to what we will call the norms account of the game. We find that the standard account of the traditional deterrence game is a special case of the norms account of the game. We also show that the adaptation of Bicchieri’s analysis of social norms yields new and interesting claims regarding when, how, and to what degree norms operate as a constraint on risk-related behavior in the traditional deterrence game. Moreover, we discuss how the results of the model provide testable propositions of relevance to the role of norms in international interactions.     

On Distinguishing Epistemic from Pragmatic Action

We present data and argument to show that in Tetris—a real-time, interactive video game—certain cognitive and perceptual problems are more quickly, easily, and reliably solved by performing actions in the world than by performing computational actions in the head alone. We have found that some of the translations and rotations made by players of this video game are best understood as actions that use the world to improve cognition. These actions are not used to implement a plan, or to implement a reaction; they are used to change the world in order to simplify the problem-solving task. Thus, we distinguish pragmatic actions—actions performed to bring one physically closer to a goal—from epistemic actions—actions performed to uncover informatioan that is hidden or hard to compute mentally. To illustrate the need for epistemic actions, we first develop a standard information-processing model of Tetris cognition and show that it cannot explain performance data from human players of the game—even when we relax the assumption of fully sequential processing. Standard models disregard many actions taken by players because they appear unmotivated or superfluous. However, we show that such actions are actually far from superfluous; they play a valuable role in improving human performance. We argue that traditional accounts are limited because they regard action as having a single function: to change the world. By recognizing a second function of action—an epistemic function—we can explain many of the actions that a traditional model cannot. Although our argument is supported by numerous examples specifically from Tetris, we outline how the new category of epistemic action can be incorporated into theories of action more generally.     

L'avenir de l'approche par élaboration de règles

The goal of this study is the elaboration of a computerized diagnostic instrument based on Siegler's rule-assessment approach for assessing the acquisition of the probability quantification scheme in subjects aged 6–18 years. Three versions of the test were used. Version 1 was Siegler's original version (four types of problems and four rules). In version 2 five new rules were added; version 3 contained the five new rules plus eleven types of problems. Results show that version 1 allows the classification of only 50% of subjects; version 2, 60%; and version 3, 70%. Despite improved versions, some weaknesses remain, the most important one being that it is still impossible to evaluate intra-individual variability. Aware of these limits, Siegler has reassigned his model to a local model of problem solving, and suggests a developmental model of information processing inspired by a Darwinian model of variation and strategy selection. The authors hypothesize that computer engineering could not only reaffirm the general status of the rule-assessment approach, but could also allow consideration of intra-individual variability.     

Attitudinal and consumption differences among traditional and nontraditional ‘childless’ couple households

This study develops a classification scheme that effectively separates delayed marriage and true childless couples from delayed empty nest couples, newlywed and traditional empty nest couples. Unlike extant traditional and ‘modernised’ life cycle models, this approach separates true childless and delayed marriage childless couple households from their traditional counterparts using the couples' length of marriage and wife's age. It also uses couples' ages at marriage to separate delayed from the traditional empty nest households. The findings clearly indicate that nontraditional ‘childless couples’ differ from their traditional counterparts in underlying values, sex role norms, and attitudes, as well as in food and beverage consumption and major durable acquisition patterns. Implications of this classification scheme for comprehensive life cycle models and future research and managerial applications of these findings are also discussed. Copyright © 2003 Henry Stewart Publications.     

Video games as research tools: The Space Fortress game

From 1983 through 1986, several laboratories investigated the role of practice in skill acquisition in a joint project called theLearning Strategies Program. The principal research tool for this project was a video game calledSpace Fortress. The present article summarizes the major findings obtained with Space Fortress, and examines several problems that arise in choosing a video game for use as a research tool.     

What you don’t know won’t hurt me: Costly (but quiet) exit in dictator games

We used simple economic games to examine pro-social behavior and the lengths that people will take to avoid engaging in it. Over two studies, we found that about one-third of participants were willing to “exit” a $10 dictator game and take $9 instead. The exit option left the receiver nothing, but also ensured that the receiver never knew that a dictator game was to be played. Because most social utility models are defined over monetary outcomes, they cannot explain choosing the ($9, $0) exit outcome over the dominating $10 dictator game, since the game includes outcomes of ($10, $0) and ($9, $1). We also studied exiting using a “private” dictator game. In the private game, the receiver never knew about the game or from where any money was received. Gifts in this game were added innocuously to a payment for a separate task. Almost no dictators exited from the private game, indicating that receivers’ beliefs are the key factor in the decision to exit. When, as in the private game, the receivers’ beliefs and expectations cannot be manipulated by exit, exit is seldom taken. We conclude that giving often reflects a desire not to violate others’ expectations rather than a concern for others’ welfare per se. We discuss the implications of our results for understanding ethical decisions and for testing and modeling social preferences. An adequate specification of social preferences should include “psychological” payoffs that directly incorporate beliefs about actions into the utility function.     

Knowledge structures and the acquisition of a complex skill

The purpose of this study was to examine the viability of knowledge structures as an operationalization of learning in the context of a task that required a high degree of skill. Over the course of 3 days, 86 men participated in 9 training sessions and learned a complex video game. At the end of acquisition, participants' knowledge structures were assessed. After a 4-day nonpractice interval, trainees completed tests of skill retention and skill transfer. Findings indicated that the similarity of trainees' knowledge structures to an expert structure was correlated with skill acquisition and was predictive of skill retention and skill transfer. However, the magnitude of these effects was dependent on the method used to derive the expert referent structure. Moreover, knowledge structures mediated the relationship between general cognitive ability and skill-based performance.     

RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHER ATTENTION AND THE “GOOD BEHAVIOR GAME” IN MODIFYING DISRUPTIVE CLASSROOM BEHAVIOR1

A variety of behavioral procedures have been employed in recent years to modify disruptive classroom behavior. Such methods have been developed with the belief that curtailing disruptive behavior would strengthen positive classroom performance. In this study, two procedures, the good behavior game and the teacher-attention method, were compared to determine short-run effectiveness. Four teachers (two fourth-grade and two fifth-grade) implemented both methods in their classrooms over a five-week period. Presentation of methods was alternated in a counterbalanced design to control for order effects. Each of the four classrooms consisted of 25 students. A time-sampling procedure was used to record the presence or absence of disruptive behavior within 15-second intervals. Disruptive behavior was defined as any talking-out or out-of-seat behavior without permission. The results indicated that both procedures were effective in modifying disruptive classroom behavior, but that the good behavior game reduced disruptive behavior significantly better than the teacher-attention method. In addition, all teachers preferred the game to the teacher-attention procedure. This reaction seemed related to the effort involved in initiating the two activities. The good behavior game required less effort on the teacher's part. However, use of the game alone raises certain ethical considerations. One such issue involves abuse of peer pressure. Also, there is a possibility that negative rules may tend to promote resentment. Positively stated rules would ameliorate that problem. Another relates to the possibility that some teachers might be carried away by the ease of the game's implementation to the extent that behavior control becomes the primary objective in the classroom. As a result, one might consider use of the game to maximize short-term change, but then phase out this procedure in favor of another method (e.g., teacher attention) for long-run effects.     

Self-controlled practice of decision-making skills

This study analyzed the effects of self-controlled practice on learning cognitive decision-making skills, focusing primarily on how participants used the time available to them during the practice sessions. 30 college students (10 women) ages 22 to 29 years volunteered to practice the game of tic-tac-toe under one of two conditions, self-controlled practice and a yoked-control condition. Learning and retention performance (game success, mean decision-making time) were assessed on tic-tac-toe game performance before training, immediately, and 3 wk. after training. Analysis showed considerable learning and retention in both groups. No differences were found during acquisition, but the self-controlled practice group had better performance than the yoked-control group on the retention test.     

双人合作类电子/传统游戏对幼儿同伴交往与亲社会行为的影响

近期研究表明短时接触双人电子游戏有助于促进幼儿的同伴交往与亲社会行为。本研究进一步考查了5天的双人合作类电子游戏与传统游戏干预对幼儿社会化的影响。结果显示,电子与传统游戏干预均能促进幼儿的同伴交往和亲社会行为,且两者的效果不存在差异;女孩比男孩更喜欢自己的搭档、更乐于与同伴交往和分享,游戏干预效果不存在性别差异。可见双人合作类电子/传统游戏干预对幼儿的同伴交往和亲社会行为发展都较有裨益。     

Information retrieval with semantic memory model

Psycholinguistic theories of semantic memory form the basis of understanding of natural language concepts. These theories are used here as an inspiration for implementing a computational model of semantic memory in the form of semantic network. Combining this network with a vector-based object-relation-feature value representation of concepts that includes also weights for confidence and support, allows for recognition of concepts by referring to their features, enabling a semantic search algorithm. This algorithm has been used for word games, in particular the 20-question game in which the program tries to guess a concept that a human player thinks about. The game facilitates lexical knowledge validation and acquisition through the interaction with humans via supervised dialog templates. The elementary linguistic competencies of the proposed model have been evaluated assessing how well it can represent the meaning of linguistic concepts. To study properties of information retrieval based on this type of semantic representation in contexts derived from on-going dialogs experiments in limited domains have been performed. Several similarity measures have been used to compare the completeness of knowledge retrieved automatically and corrected through active dialogs to a “golden standard”. Comparison of semantic search with human performance has been made in a series of 20-question games. On average results achieved by human players were better than those obtained by semantic search, but not by a wide margin.