The Importance of Social Versus Temporal Comparison Appraisals Among Older Adults1

It has been suggested that social comparisons become less frequent and less important to one's self-evaluation, and temporal comparisons become more frequent and more important to self-evaluation in later life. In this study, the influence of social and temporal comparison appraisals on global self-ratings in 3 domains (health, income, and memory) was assessed among individuals ranging in age from 53 to 90 years. Although social comparison appraisals were significantly related to self-ratings in all 3 domains, temporal comparison appraisals were only related to self-rated memory. There was also no evidence that the effect of social or temporal comparison appraisals on self-evaluations differed with age among our sample of middle-aged and older adults. Social comparison appraisal appears to be a viable mechanism by which esteem can be preserved in old age, despite increasing loss and impairment.     

The Response to Density in Residential Settings: The Mediating Effects of Social and Personal Variables1

In recent years, conceptualizations of the human crowding phenomena have developed from simple deterministic ones to those that emphasize the interaction of environmental, social, and personal variables. Furthermore, the influences of many variables suspected to mediate the density response relationship have been empirically tested in a variety of settings. It must be recognized, however, that the results of these tests may be setting specific and may not generalize to other setting types. The present study examines the influence of the social relationship between occupants, perceived similarity, formal group structure, and previous residential experience on the association between household density and attitudinal, behavioral, and health measures of well-being. The results of a survey analysis suggest that household density does have effects on satisfaction and behavior; however, no health effects were found. Furthermore, these reactions to density are exacerbated when the social relationship between occupants is close and when individuals have a history of high density living conditions. Although some results seem counterintuitive, they can be explained by adopting a dynamic casual model of crowding.     

The Intention to Give Up Smoking: Disease Versus Social Dimensions

Abstract

An expanded protection motivation model was used to investigate the intention to give up smoking. Because smoking has both physiological and social-psychological foundations, the model was expanded to include the social dimensions as well as the original disease dimensions as predictors of health behavior. The participants were 96 current smokers (35 male and 61 female) in Australia; 44 were young adults (age < 22 years), and 52 were adults (age > 34 years). Data were analyzed by multiple regression with hierarchical entry, first of disease dimensions, then of social dimensions. For both the young and the adult smokers, the disease dimensions contributed significantly to the results of the regression equations. Addition of the social dimensions yielded a significant F change only for young smokers and increased the amount of variance explained from 23% to 38%.     

The Influences of Friends' and Parental Smoking on Adolescent Smoking Behavior: The Effects of Time and Prior Smoking1

This research examines the relative importance of parental and friends' influences on adolescents' smoking behavior and changes in the effects of social influences during adolescence. Data were collected at 4 times from 7th to 9th grades. Random-effects ordinal regression models were employed to predict the repeated classification of adolescent smoking status using time effects, prior smoking status, friends' smoking, and parental smoking. In general, the effects of friends' smoking are stronger than those of parental smoking, and these differences increase over time. In addition, friends' smoking has greater effects on nonsmokers than smokers. Separate models for males and females disclose some gender differences. In particular, the effects of friends' smoking are stronger for females than for males, and the increasing trend of friends' influences is more noticeable for females than for males. Models for 4 ethnic groups also suggest differential susceptibility to social influences in different cultures.     

戒烟社会支持与吸烟者戒烟意向的关系：亲友认同的调节作用和吸烟危害认识的中介作用

研究旨在考察吸烟者的亲友认同和吸烟危害认识在亲友戒烟社会支持与戒烟意向关系中的作用。对340名吸烟者被试进行问卷调查,结果表明：（1）戒烟社会支持显著正向预测戒烟意向;（2）吸烟危害认识对社会支持和戒烟意向的关系起完全中介作用;（3）亲友认同对戒烟社会支持和戒烟意向的关系起显著调节作用。研究拓展了压力缓冲模型,说明了戒烟社会支持的认知功能,且支持了社会认同在社会支持发挥作用过程中的重要性。     

吸烟者感知吸烟社会规范与社交性吸烟行为的关系：身份认同和关系观的作用

考察吸烟者身份认同和关系观在感知吸烟社会规范与社交性吸烟行为关系中的作用。对1016名吸烟者进行问卷调查,结果表明：（1）感知吸烟社会规范显著正向预测社交性吸烟;（2）身份认同对感知吸烟社会规范和社交性吸烟关系起部分中介作用;（3）关系观正向调节感知吸烟社会规范和社交性吸烟的关系,而对感知吸烟社会规范和身份认同关系的调节不显著。研究支持了感知吸烟社会规范影响社交性吸烟的身份认同机制和文化价值观调节机制。     

社会支持对大学生希望的影响机制:自尊和自我效能感的中介作用

为了探讨社会支持各维度和大学生希望的关系及其自尊和自我效能感在其中的作用机制,采用社会支持评定量表、希望特质问卷、自尊量表和一般自我效能问卷对756名大学生进行调查。结果发现:(1)社会支持的主观支持维度对大学生的希望有着显著的正向预测作用,客观支持和支持利用度两个维度对希望的预测作用不显著;(2)自尊和自我效能感在主观社会支持对希望的预测关系中有非常显著的中介作用,而自我效能感的中介效应更显著。     

Social Costs of Smoking: Effects of Tobacco Smoke on Hostile Behavior1

Male and female undergraduates interacted with a same-sex experimenter and a same-sex assistant of the experimenter. Either the experimenter or the assistant smoked. Subjects were provoked or not provoked by the experimenter and then smoked. Subjects were provoked or not provided by the experimenter and then provided with an opportunity to treat him or her in a hostile manner. Additionally, subjects were classified as smokers or nonsmokers and as supporting or opposing smoking in public places. Tobacco smoke was found to facilitate hostile behavior whether or not subjects were independently annoyed and whether or not it originated from the annoyer or a bystander. No sex differences were observed in this effect. Also, no appreciable difference was observed in the hostile behavior of smokers and nonsmokers. Persons opposed to public smoking reacted more strongly to the provocation than persons supportive of public smoking, but this effect was independent of the presence or absence of smoke.     

Initiation and Maintenance of Tobacco Smoking: Changing Personality Correlates in Adolescence and Young Adulthood1

Youthful smokers have been described as extroverted and peer-involved, whereas older smokers are often characterized as depressed and withdrawn. Recognizing this contradiction, we examined cross-sectional and prospective associations between smoking and personality and social constructs assessed every 4 years in a sample (N= 461) originally recruited in junior high school. At Time 1, smoking was positively related to good social relations, extroversion, friends' cigarette use, and cheerfulness. At Times 2–4, smoking was positively related to depression and friends' cigarette use, negatively correlated with good Social Relations, and unrelated to extroversion. Cigarette use was stable over time, but least stable between Times 1 and 2. Findings suggest the instability of early social smoking with peers; those who persist may smoke for tension reduction and self-medication.     

Influences of Parental and Best Friends' Smoking and Drinking on Adolescent Use: A Longitudinal Study1

Many studies have dealt with the relative impact of parents and peers on adolescent substance use. However, only a few studies have explored the role of adolescents themselves in social relationships. Homogeneity in behavioral patterns within friendships can also be generated by selective association. Acknowledgment of selection processes might shed new light on the debate on the influences of parents and friends. This paper examines the impact of parental and best friends' smoking and drinking on adolescents' use, using data (N= 1,063) from a 3-wave, 5-year longitudinal study. The results show that friends' smoking did not affect adolescent smoking over time. Only in early adolescence did friends' drinking exert an influence on subjects' alcohol use. On the other hand, parental use had a small but significant impact on their offspring. Furthermore, support was found for processes of selective association.     

Social Influences on the Goal Choices of Group Members1

The influences of anticipation of evaluation, anticipation of group interaction, and taking other group members into consideration were each explored for their impact on the selection of task performance goals by group members. Self-evaluation, esteem maintenance, and comparison with others hypotheses were described as plausible explanations for earlier findings that groups select lower task performance goals than individuals. Results provided considerable support for the self-evaluation and comparison-with-others hypotheses, but indicated that esteem maintenance could not account for some aspects of the data. Discussion focused on understanding the results within the context of social comparison theory.     

Absolute Versus Tentative Interpretations: Mediating Effects of Client Locus of Control

An analog design was used to investigate the mediating effects of client locus of control (i.e., an internal focus or external focus) on perceptions of counselor style of interpreting events (i.e., absolute or tentative interpretations) on measures of perceived session depth and smoothness, and perceived counselor expertness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness. One hundred and thirty-four undergraduate college students, crossed on level of locus of control, were randomly assigned to one of two treatment conditions, and then completed measures of perceived session depth and smoothness, as well as perceived counselor expertness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness. Results indicated a significant interaction effect on perceived counselor trustworthiness. Implications for college counselors are provided.     

Developing Data-Based Communications in Social Psychological Research: Adolescent Smoking Prevention1

The present paper deals with how pre-intervention data were gathered from a sample of junior high school students to whom a smoking prevention program was addressed and how these data were used in the creation of trigger films which were an important element in the prevention program. The coping techniques used by students who are successfully able to withstand social pressures to smoke were determined from pre-intervention group interview-role-playing sessions with samples of students from two schools representative of the intended target population of the smoking prevention program. These data were used in the production and editing of ten-minute, sound, color films which reflected simulations of the student responses in the interview-role-playing sessions. Assessment of the impact of these filmed social-inoculation coping strategies indicates that they appear to be a promising component of smoking deterrent programs for adolescents.     

The Employment Interview Context: Social and Situational Influences on Interviewer Decisions1

The employment interview context is broad and multifaceted, and it includes a number of social, situational, and affective influences which generate from the interviewee, interviewer, nature of the job in question, and interactions among these factors. The employment interview is proposed to be influenced by nonverbal and self-promotion behaviors of the applicant, interviewer training, and the requirements of the job. These variables then influence the intermediate variables of applicant similarity to the interviewer, perceived competence of the applicant, and interviewer affect toward the applicant. The intermediate variables then influence the perceived job suitability of the applicant. The present study tested and found support for modeling the employment interview context and how it affects interviewer decisions. The contributions and limitations of the present study are discussed, in addition to directions for future research.     

Cognitive Social Learning Variables and the Characteristics of Leaders1

This study explored the potential of a person × situation approach to identifying the characteristics of leaders in a voluntary community organization. A set of variables based on Mischel's “cognitive social learning variables” was operationalized to provide variables which assess the characteristics of individuals in relation to the specific context in which some emerge as leaders. This set of variables was compared with a larger set of traditional demographic and personality variables. Analyses indicated the approximate statistical comparability of the two sets. Advantages of the cognitive social learning approach for understanding and intervening in leader emergence and development in voluntary community organizations are discussed.     

Social Distribution of Social Support: The Mediating Role of Life Events

Although the relation of socioeconomic status (SES) to social support has been discussed for some time, researchers have rarely systematically examined the social patterning of this resource. In addition, potential explanatory mechanisms have not been investigated. This study examined both the social distribution of social support and the role of life events in the association between SES and social support in a nationally representative probability sample of adults from the National Cormorbidity Survey. Higher education and income were related to more emotional support and fewer negative interactions. Individuals with higher incomes were also less likely to report acute and chronic life events. Finally, acute (but not chronic) life events mediated the relation between SES and social support (both emotional support and negative interactions). These results suggest the inability of lower SES individuals to mobilize social support in times of need may be explained by their more frequent experience of acute life events.     

时间洞察力对拖延行为的影响机制:时间折扣的中介作用

采用津巴多时间洞察力量表（ZTPI）、一般拖延量表（GPS）和跨期选择任务,考察了时间洞察力对拖延行为的影响,并从时间折扣视角检验了时间洞察力影响拖延行为的中介机制。结果表明（1）对553名大学生的测量数据进行逐步回归和优势分析,结果表明："未来"时间洞察力对拖延行为具有良好的预测力,解释率最高;（2）对121名大学生的测量数据进行中介分析,结果表明：时间折扣在时间洞察力影响拖延行为过程中起着中介作用。这些结果说明,"未来"时间洞察力对拖延行为具有较好的预测作用,而且未来时间洞察力对拖延行为的影响可能是通过时间折扣为中介实现的。     

Influences of Upstream Social Factors on Downstream Perceptions of Social Support in Cardiac Rehabilitation1

Within Berkman et al.'s (2000) framework, we examined sociodemographic correlates of social networks (SN) and social support (SS) in 155 heart patients (33 women, 122 men), who completed measures of sociodemographics, SN, and SS. Hierarchical regression analyses examined the relationship between sociodemographic factors and SN; and between sociodemographic factors, SN, and SS. Higher social status and more income were related to larger, more diverse networks and more SS. Higher social status and being married were related to more SS. Being married was related to more belonging and tangible support. Results show the complex relationship between higher level social factors and specific SS functions offering areas for future interventions to increase SS in heart patients.     

Within-Family Effects of Smoking during Pregnancy on ADHD: the Importance of Phenotype

We sought to test within- and between- family associations of smoking during pregnancy (SDP) and attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms using a structured interview based on the conventional Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition (DSM-IV) symptoms and the Strengths and Weaknesses of ADHD-Symptoms and Normal-Behavior (SWAN) scale, which is a population based measure that grew out of the notion that an ADHD diagnosis exists on the extreme end of a continuum of normative behaviors and includes both above- and below- average performance on attention and activity. We used a sibling-comparison approach in a sample of 173 families including siblings aged 7–16 years (52% male) drawn from the state of Missouri, USA, wherein mothers smoked during one pregnancy but not the other. There was a within-family effect of smoking during pregnancy on SWAN hyperactivity/impulsivity and SWAN total ADHD behaviors. The associations between SDP and DSM-IV-based ADHD symptom dimensions as well as SWAN inattention were explained by familial confounds. These findings suggest that SDP exerts a potentially causal effect on increased ADHD hyperactive/impulsive behaviors and that this SDP effect is best captured when hyperactivity/impulsivity is assessed more normatively across the population, rather than specifically assessing problematic behaviors via DSM symptoms. Thus, any potentially causal effect of SDP on ADHD symptom dimensions may be restricted to hyperactive/impulsive behaviors rather than inattention, and normative, non-DSM-IV based behavioral measures may provide a more sensitive test of mechanisms of SDP-ADHD symptom associations, particularly in non-clinical samples.     

Understanding Youth Smoking Behavior Through Modeling the Smoking Decision Process: Lessons Learned From a Developing Country1

The prevalence of youth smoking is well reported in the literature. However, most research so far has been conducted in developed countries, leaving the incidence of youth smoking in developing and less developed countries unexplored and to the mercy of the tobacco industry. The present study forms a prototype called the smoking decision process model on youth smoking behavior, which draws from existing literature. Through this model, researchers, health practitioners, and anti‐smoking activist groups in various parts of the developing world can acquire a more holistic view of the factors behind youth smoking behavior in their respective societies and, in turn, focus on the most appropriate means to combat smoking. A case study application of the model is presented in this study, involving Cypriot youth 12 to 18 years of age.