11 Suicide in an International Perspective

Epidemiological trends in national suicide rates were identified, including a slowdown in the 1980s in the suicide rates of nations with the highest rates and a rising male suicide rate worldwide. A review of theories of national differences in suicide rates permitted selection of a small set of predictor variables, which were quite successful in predicting the suicide rates of 17 industrialized nations.     

Youth suicide: a cross-cultural perspective

Changes in the suicide rate of teenagers and young adults internationally from 1970 to 1980 were examined. Twenty-three nations experienced an increase (with Norway experiencing the largest percentage increase), while six experienced a decrease. Unlike general suicide rates, teenage suicide rates were not related to the quality of life in the nations surveyed.     

Suicide among adolescents and young adults: a cross-national comparison of 34 countries

Few cross-national reports have examined suicide rates among adolescents and young adults. A survey of suicides among 15-24-year-olds in 34 of the wealthiest nations demonstrated that 15,555 youths killed themselves in a 1-year study period. Thirty-four percent of these suicides were firearm-related. Finland led the participating nations in total and firearm-related suicide rates. An association was found between divorce rates and youth suicide rates, firearm-related suicide among youths, and suicide rates among young males. For a smaller sample of countries, an association was found between firearm availability and firearm-related suicide rates among youths and suicide rates among young males.     

Development, gender equality, and suicide rates

A component of the United Nations Development Programme Human Development Index which measures longevity was negatively associated -.55 with suicide rates in 37 nations for men; the correlation with the suicide sex ratio was also negative (r = -.59). Women's access to social, political, and economic power in a subsample of 26 nations, summarized in the UNDP's Gender Empowerment Measure, was positively correlated with suicide rates (r = .36 for both women and men). UNDP measures of attainment in literacy and income showed no individual relationship with suicide rates. In a multiple regression model, life expectancy was negatively related, and the Gender-related Development index was positively related, to suicide rates.     

National differences in intelligence and population rates of suicidal ideation, suicide plans, and attempted suicide

Population rates of suicidal ideation, suicide plans or attempted suicide from three independent multinational epidemiological surveys (the WHO/EURO and WHO SUPRE-MISS studies and a third one) were not significantly associated with national IQ figures. This result conflicts with previous evidence from cross-national studies (by Lester and by Voracek) of a positive ecological correlation between level of national intelligence and rates of completed suicide. Across nations, the indicators for the prevalence of suicidal behavior also lacked close correspondence with suicide rates, which may be due to the higher unreliability of assessing covert suicidal behavior (suicide ideas, thoughts, plans, and, to a lesser extent, also suicide attempts) as compared to suicidal behavior that is indisputably overt (completed suicide). Several alternative explanations for the current nil findings are also discussed.     

Cross-national social ecology of intelligence and suicide prevalence: integration, refinement, and update of studies

This study integrates, refines, and updates previous findings pertaining to positive ecologic (population-level) associations between intelligence and suicide prevalence across nations by using corrected and revised national IQ estimates and, further, a quality-of-human-conditions index, both recently published by Lynn and Vanhanen. Across a global 85-nation sample of sex-specific total suicide rates and a Eurasian 48-nation sample of sex-specific elderly suicide rates, these were positively associated with updated national IQ estimates. The associations were stronger for the general population than for elderly persons, independent of the quality of human conditions, and notedly stronger in exponential fitting of suicide rates with national IQ than in linear fitting, thereby indicating that shifts or differences in national IQ correspond to proportional, not absolute, changes in suicide rates. Implications of these findings and the question of generalizability of such associations to the individual level are discussed.     

Problem behaviors and suicide and homicide

In a sample of 36 nations, suicide rates were negatively associated with a drug abuse index. Homicide rates were positively associated with a violent crime index.     

Cancer and suicide

Mortality rates from suicide and cancer in 1990 in 37 European nations were positively associated.     

Nations' rated individualism and suicide and homicide rates

Individualism ratings for 27 nations were not associated with suicide or homicide rates after controls for per capita gross domestic product.     

Lyrics of national anthems and suicide rates

The suicide rates of 18 European nations were associated with the proportion of sad words in the lyrics of their national anthems as well as the gloominess of the music. It is suggested that a possible suicide prevention tactic might involve changing the music and lyrics of national anthems.     

Relationship of IQ to suicide and homicide rate: an international perspective

IQs were correlated with the z score of suicide rate minus z score of homicide rate using nine regions of the world--established market economies, formerly socialized Europe, India, China, other Asian nations, Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America/Caribbean, Middle East Crescent, and the USA. Correlations were .85 and .83 with crude rates and age-adjusted rates, respectively. The homicide findings are consistent with previous research in individual countries showing that less intelligent persons commit homicide more often. However, the present findings of a positive correlation between IQ and suicide rates are the opposite of what has been found in the more definitive studies within countries. Explanations for the apparent paradox and for the findings more generally were offered.     

Predicting European suicide rates with physiological indices

In a sample of 17 European nations, the prevalence of the brain parasite Toxoplasma gondii and the percentage of Finno-Ugrians in the populations were significantly associated with national suicide rates for men and women.     

Individualism and suicide

In a sample of 19 nations, suicide rates were not associated with nations' estimates of work locus of control, job satisfaction, psychological well-being, physical well-being, or individualism.     

Quality of life for children and suicide rates

The quality of life in 1982 of children in nations of the world reported by Jordan in 1993 was positively associated with youth suicide rates only for males in 1982.     

National anthems and suicide rates

In a sample of 18 European nations, suicide rates were positively associated with the proportion of low notes in the national anthems and, albeit less strongly, with students' ratings of how gloomy and how sad the anthems sounded, supporting a hypothesis proposed by Rihmer.     

Brain parasites and suicide

In a sample of 20 European nations, the prevalence of the brain parasite Toxoplasma gondii was positively associated with national suicide rates for men and women.     

Questions of culture,age and gender in the epidemiology of suicide

Cultural values were examined as predictors of suicide incidence rates compiled for men and women in six age groups for 33 nations for the years 1965, 1970, 1975, 1980, and 1985. Hofstede's cultural values of Power-Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, and Masculinity (i.e., social indifference) were negative correlates of reported suicide, and Individualism was a strong positive correlate. The proportion of variance in suicide reports generally related to these four cultural values was R2 = 0.25. Suicide by women and by middle-aged people was most related to cultural values, even though international variance in suicide is greater for men and for the elderly. Suicide incidence for girls and young women showed unique negative correlations with Individualism. For all age groups, Individualism predicted a greater preponderance of male suicides, and Power-Distance predicted more similar male and female suicide rates. Social alienation and Gilligan's feminist theory of moral judgment were hypothesized to explain some gender differences.     

Suicide rate and national scores on the Big Five personality factors

Across 46 nations around the world, suicide rates were negatively correlated with national scores on the Big Five personality factors of Agreeableness and Conscientiousness (two facets indicating low Psychoticism), thus not replicating previous findings of Lester (1993, 2005).     

Suicidality in primary health care and national suicide rates

The incidence of suicidal symptoms for primary health care patients did not predict national suicide rates in a sample of 10 nations.