Changes in patterns of Early Mother-Child Interaction: A longitudinal study of the first 18 months of life

ObjectiveThe main objective of the present longitudinal study is to describe the progression of early adult-child interactions between the first and second years of life. Changes identified in interactions are described, focusing on both the qualitative aspects of maternal responses, as well as maternal response latency to the child's behavior using a microanalytical methodology that collected data on maternal and child behavior in real-time without losing sight of the temporal dimension.ParticipantsThis study examined 52 mother-child dyads from intact families that presented no psychological, social, or biological risk factors at 6, 12 and 18 months of age.InstrumentCITMI-R (early mother-child interaction coding system, revised edition) was used to assess early mother-infant interactions during free play sessions between mother and child the.ResultsThe results indicate that some components of maternal sensitivity improve as children progress towards the second year of life, detecting an increase in sensitive maternal behavior and a decrease in intrusive behavior in the evolutive observed period; moreover, regarding latency of maternal response, we observed that mothers of older children give more time for their children to explore, which stimulates autonomy. Finally, the implication of these results for intervention directed to optimizing early adult-child interactions are addressed.     

Analysis of toddlers' gait after six months of independent walking to identify autism: a preliminary study

This research analyzed gait in toddlers and tested the hypothesis that movement can be used as an early indicator of Autistic Disorder. It was proposed that an early identification method could indicate differences in the gait of toddlers with autism as opposed to those with typical development or with mental retardation. Observational methods were applied to retrospective home videos of 42 children after 6 mo. of independent walking. In particular, the Walking Observation Scale was used, which includes 11 items that analyze gait through three axes of foot movements, arm movements, and global movements. Analysis showed different distributions for the three groups, i.e., the autistic group differed from the other two on scores for the Walking Observation Scale and each axis. After 6 mo. of independent walking, different patterns in gait among groups were evident. These results agree with recently published evidence which acknowledges the importance of movement as an early indicator for differential diagnosis of autism.     

Patterns of movement in the first 6 months of life: new directions

The field of infant perceptual development has relied heavily on the preferential-looking and habituation paradigms. Despite the obvious advantages of employing standardized methodologies, there is a need to study how perceptual variables give rise to and guide action beginning in the neonatal period. It is argued here that, in the first 5 months of life, it is important to distinguish reflexive patterns of movement from voluntary and cortically controlled patterns. Some criteria are defined. This paper describes three experiments which utilized movement counters to record developmental changes in the frequency and synchrony of limb movements in infants under 5 months. The results show that there is a general increase in frequency of limb movements from 1 to 5 months, but with a plateau or even a decrease in activity from the middle of the third month to the end of the fourth month. It was also demonstrated that synchrony scores (co-activation) for pairs of limbs showed significant increases from 1 month to 5 months. Finally, in all three experiments the presentation of an attractive toy resulted in suppression of activity. The results of the three experiments are interpreted to measure a gradual increase in cortically controlled movement patterns.     

Changes in desire for control over time: Gender differences in a ten-year longitudinal study

Undergraduate students from a predominantly white middle class student body who were administered the Desirability of Control Scale in 1980 completed the scale again in 1990. Males scored significantly higher on the scale than females, indicating a higher desire for control, in the initial sample. The males' scores did not differ significantly over the ten-year period. However, the female subjects' scores increased over the course of the decade to a point not significantly different from that of the males. Possible explanations of this effect concern changes in gender role expectations in the 1980's and changes in the women's preference for control following school and career experiences.Some of the data reported in this paper were presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, San Francisco, 1991.Reprint requests should be addressed to either Jerry M. Burger at Department of Psychology, Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, CA 95053, or Cecilia H. Solano at Department of Psychology, Box 7778, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC 27109.     

Changes in infant directed speech in the first six months

The Mother–Infant Phonetic Interaction model (MIPhI) predicts that, compared with adult directed speech (ADS), in infant directed speech (IDS) vowels will be overspecified and consonants underspecified during the infants' first 6 months. In a longitudinal natural study, six mothers' ADS and IDS were recorded on 10 occasions during the first 6 months after their infants were born. Acoustic–phonetic measures, including the first two formant frequencies and duration for vowels and the duration of the fricative /s/, were used to test the MIPhI model with differences between IDS and ADS during the infants' first 6 months. Repeated measures analyses showed the fricative /s/ duration was stably longer in IDS, corresponding to an overspecification throughout the 6 months. The unexpected smaller vowel space for IDS than ADS was stably maintained over the six months, suggesting an underspecification of vowels. Vowel duration, which was generally longer in IDS than ADS, however, changed over time, decreasing in difference between IDS and ADS during month 3 and 4. Results invite adjustments to the MIPhI model, in particular related to infants' needs for perceptual enhancement of speech segments, and to the course of infant neurological and communicative development throughout the first 6 months. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Stability and transitions in mother-infant face-to-face communication during the first 6 months: a microhistorical approach

In this study the authors attempted to unravel the relational, dynamical, and historical nature of mother-infant communication during the first 6 months. Thirteen mothers and their infants were videotaped weekly from 4 to 24 weeks during face-to-face interactions. Three distinct patterns of mother-infant communication were identified: symmetrical, asymmetrical, and unilateral. Guided by a dynamic systems perspective, the authors explored the stability of and transitions between these communication patterns. Findings from event history analysis showed that (a) there are regularly recurring dyadic communication patterns in early infancy, (b) these recurring patterns show differential stabilities and likelihoods of transitions, (c) dynamic stability in dyadic communication is shaped not only by individual characteristics (e.g., infant sex and maternal parity) but also by the dyad's communication history, and (d) depending on their recency, communication histories varying in temporal proximity exert differential effects on the self-organization processes of a dyadic system.     

Motor development during the first 6 months: the case of Brazilian infants

This investigation documents the pattern of motor development of Brazilian infants over the first 6 months and compares the findings with a US norm. Infants were assessed once each month for the 6‐month period using the Bayley II Motor Scale, which represented the US norm for comparison. Participants monthly scores increased with age and were similar to the US profile. However, the Brazilian infants did exhibit mean scores significantly lower than their counterparts on tasks of sitting and grasping in the 3rd, 4th, and 5th month; at the 6th month, scores were comparable. Explanations for differences focus on possible cross‐cultural and maturational influences. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Infants' responses to arm restraint at 2 and 6 months: a longitudinal study

This study examined the continuity, stability, and change of infants' responses to a frustrating event (i.e., arm restraint) between 2 and 6 months in terms of both negative reactivity and its regulation. Fifty-two healthy, full-term infants and their mothers participated in an arm restraint procedure. Infant behaviors were observed and coded at 3-s intervals. The results showed that infants' reactivity to frustration and their ability to regulate such reactivity significantly changed in level over time. Individual differences in frustration reactivity were stable across the two ages; two regulatory behaviors (i.e., orientation to mother and avoidance) could be observed in the same percentage of babies at both 2 and 6 months. At 6 months, several significant associations between frustration reactivity and infant regulatory behaviors emerged. These findings suggest that the arm restraint procedure may be usefully employed to study individual differences in infants as young as 2 months of age.     

Spontaneous head positions in infants during the first 9 postnatal months

The developmental organization of spontaneous head positioning over the first 9 postnatal months of life was investigated in a study of 35 infants. Head positions assumed by infants while at rest were recorded at 11 observation period: at 1 week, 2 weeks, 4 weeks of age, and every 4 weeks thereafter until the infant was 36 weeks old. Results indicated an overall tendency toward a head-right position, which was strongest during the neonatal period, but declined with age. The head-right position bias was qualified by familial handedness.     

Regulation of emotion after acute pain from 3 to 18 months: a longitudinal study

The object of this study is the stability of emotional regulation after painful events during early development. Thirty subjects' facial expressions were longitudinally observed at 3, 5, 11 and 18 months for 60 s before and 90 s after a paediatric vaccination. The results confirmed that regulation of pain increases with increasing age. Stability was found between 3 and 5 months, but not between 3 and 11 months, thus suggesting that at 5–6 months, there may be a developmental shift towards better regulation of stress responses. In contrast to the existing literature, Italian infants showed much more sadness than anger during soothing time; they also showed little pain at 18 months. Differences in the medical procedures or maternal soothing strategies may account for differences in soothing between Italian and US samples. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A longitudinal investigation of maternal touching across the first 6 months of life: Age and context effects

The types of touch used by 12 mothers with their 1-, 3- and 5.5-month-old infants were examined longitudinally during two different interaction contexts lasting 5 min each. Changes in maternal touching as a function of infants’ age and interaction context were revealed.     

Infants' interactions with professional caregivers at 3 and 6 months of age: a longitudinal study

This study longitudinally investigated the quality and stability of 64 infants’ interactions with their professional caregivers in child care centers at 3 and 6 months of age, i.e., across the first 3 months after they entered child care. It was also examined whether the infants’ negative emotionality (as rated by the mother) predicted the quality of the caregiver–infant interaction. The interactive behavior of the professional caregivers (sensitivity, cooperation) and the infants (responsiveness, involvement) was rated from videotapes recorded in three different caregiving situations, lasting about 25 min in total. In contrast to our expectation, the quality of the caregiver–infant interaction did not significantly increase across the first 3 months in child care. As expected, significant rank order stability was found for the quality of the caregivers’ behavior over time. Also in accordance with our expectations, infants with higher negative emotionality scores experienced less sensitivity and cooperation in interactions with their primary professional caregivers at both ages.     

Sit-to-stand movement in children: A longitudinal study based on kinematics data

Although the ability to stand from a seated posture is relevant for clinical practice, there are few studies investigating the process of acquisition and refinement of the motor components involved in sit-to-stand movement (STS) in children. Therefore, this longitudinal study aims to describe kinematic characteristics of the STS movement in children from 12 to 18 months, and also to investigate the relationship between changes in STS movement and childrens’ daily-life mobility. Ten healthy children were evaluated at 12,13,14,15 and 18 months of age. A motion analysis system was used to measure total duration of STS movement and angular movements of each joint, and frequencies of successful and unsupported STS were obtained. The Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory was used to assess childrens’ daily-life mobility. Results showed that children tend to increase the frequency of successful trials over the months by reducing the total duration and decreasing peak ankle dorsiflexion and trunk flexion during STS. Children also started to stand up from chair with decreased trunk flexion angle among ages. At the end of the STS, we observed decreases in trunk flexion and knee flexion over age. Furthermore, kinematic characteristics that reflect improvements in STS movement are related to better performance of functional skills and decreased level of assistance provided by the caregiver in daily-life mobility of younger children. However, the strength of these associations decreases from 14 months of age onwards.     

Job-search persistence during unemployment: a 10-wave longitudinal study

Dynamic predictors of job-search intensity over time are examined in a large 10-wave longitudinal study of unemployed individuals. Two sets of variables relevant to the examination of job search from a dynamic, self-regulatory perspective--core self-evaluations (T. A. Judge, A. Erez, & J. E. Bono, 1998) and the theory of planned behavior (I. Ajzen, 1991)--were used to guide our examination. Results suggest core self-evaluation is related to average levels of job-search intensity over time. Job-search intentions mediated the relationship between subjective norms and job-search self-efficacy in the prediction of job-search intensity in the following 2 weeks. Both Time 1 and cumulative job-search intensity predict reemployment. This repeated-measures study contributes to research on job search that has been primarily cross-sectional or included few time waves.     

First symbols in a girl with Down syndrome: A longitudinal study from 12 to 18 months

Symbolic uses of objects originate in communicative and triadic contexts (adult–child-object). In this longitudinal study we explore the emergence and development of the first symbolic uses in triadic interaction contexts in a girl with Down syndrome between 12 and 18-months of age. We conducted five sessions of video recording, at 12, 13½, 15, 16½, and 18 months chronological age. At each session we videotaped the girl and her mother interacting with different objects. Data were coded in semiotic categories used in previous studies (Rodríguez & Moro, 1999) and a microgenetic analysis was conducted for each session. The first symbolic uses by the girl appeared at 13½ months. Symbols were of different types and levels of complexity, and the adult had an important role in facilitating the production of these symbols.     

Cognitive predictors of achievement growth in mathematics: a 5-year longitudinal study

The study's goal was to identify the beginning of 1st grade quantitative competencies that predict mathematics achievement start point and growth through 5th grade. Measures of number, counting, and arithmetic competencies were administered in early 1st grade and used to predict mathematics achievement through 5th (n = 177), while controlling for intelligence, working memory, and processing speed. Multilevel models revealed intelligence and processing speed, and the central executive component of working memory predicted achievement or achievement growth in mathematics and, as a contrast domain, word reading. The phonological loop was uniquely predictive of word reading and the visuospatial sketch pad of mathematics. Early fluency in processing and manipulating numerical set size and Arabic numerals, accurate use of sophisticated counting procedures for solving addition problems, and accuracy in making placements on a mathematical number line were uniquely predictive of mathematics achievement. Use of memory-based processes to solve addition problems predicted mathematics and reading achievement but in different ways. The results identify the early quantitative competencies that uniquely contribute to mathematics learning.     

Effects of passive interpersonal light touch during walking on postural control responses: An exploratory study

The effects of passive interpersonal light touch (PILT) on postural stability can be observed through improved postural coordination through haptic feedback from the contact provider to the contact receiver while walking. It is unclear, however, whether PILT affects the contact receiver's detailed physical responses, such as muscle activity, body sway, and joint movements. In this study, surface electromyography and an inertial measurement unit were used simultaneously to explore changes in walking speed and control responses induced by PILT. We evaluated fourteen healthy participants for their walking speed and physical responses under two walking conditions: no-touch (NT) and PILT. As a physical response during walking, we measured muscle activity (rectus femoris, semitendinosus, tibialis anterior, and soleus muscles), body sway (pelvis and neck), and joint angles (direction of hip, knee, and ankle joint movements). In PILT condition, fingertip contact force was measured while the contact provider touched the third level of the recipient's lumbar spine. In comparison with the NT condition, PILT condition increased walking speed and decreased body sway on neck position. There were significant correlations between walking speed and neck sway regarding NT and PILT change values. Passive haptic information to the contact receiver may assist in the smooth shift of the center of gravity position during gait through interpersonal postural coordination. These findings suggest that PILT may provide an efficient and stable gait.     

Motor development during the first year: a comparative study.

This investigation of the motor development characteristics of Brazilian infants during the 1st year of postnatal life compared the findings with those of a widely used U.S. sample (N. Bayley, 1993). Analysis of the 12 monthly assessments indicated that Brazilian infants' scores increased with age, with the greatest increase occurring over the first 8 months. As a general comparison, the results are similar to the U.S. patterns of development. However, the Brazilian sample exhibited mean scores significantly lower than the U.S. sample's in the 3rd, 4th, and 5th months. More specific analyses indicated that the difference within these months was on tasks of sitting and grasping. Possible explanations for the differences focus on variations in child-rearing practices and the influence of biological maturation in early movement behaviors.     

Infant vocal development during the first 6 months: speech quality and melodic complexity

The early development of infant non‐distress vocalizations was investigated in this study. Thirteen infants, from 4 to 24 weeks of age, and their mothers were observed weekly in a face‐to‐face interaction situation. The speech quality (syllabic versus vocalic) and melodic complexity (simple versus complex) of infant vocalizations were coded independently. Based on speech quality and melodic complexity, four types of infant non‐distress vocalizations were categorized: simple and complex syllabic (speech‐like) vocalizations as well as simple and complex vocalic (non‐speech‐like) vocalizations. Results showed that complex syllabic sounds were of longer duration and complex vocalic sounds were less frequent than the other types of vocalizations. Curvilinear developmental trends were found in the rate of simple vocalic sounds and in the mean duration of complex syllabic sounds. Furthermore, before 4 months of age, vocalic sounds were more likely to be associated with simple melodic contours, after which syllabic sounds were more likely to be associated with complex melodic contours. A dynamic systems perspective on the early development of infant vocalization is discussed. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.