Comparing performance by parents and offspring on a rapid tapping task

The purpose of this study was to identify the relationships between 42 parents' and their offsprings' performance on a rapid tapping task. It was expected that genetic predispositions would gradually limit children's performance on a tapping task as they matured chronologically. Four different age groups of children and their parents performed the tapping task on different sizes of boards. Repeated-measures analysis of variance indicated that, while parents' mean performance was generally higher than that of their children (F = 32.89, p < .001), the difference was affected by the children's age, which hand was used, and the board size. Spearman rank correlation scores between parents' and children's overall performances gradually increased across age groups (p = -.29, -.10, .47, and .40, respectively, from younger to older age groups). This finding suggests that the potential of youngsters' future performance may be predicted with greater certainty by observing their parents' present performance. This may improve the predictive power of planned programs.     

学龄前儿童社会善念理解的发展与心理理论的关系

本文探究了4~6岁儿童社会善念理解的发展及其与心理理论的关系。研究测量了100名4~6岁儿童的社会善念理解、心理理论、亲社会性和执行功能。结果发现, 随着年龄增长, 儿童愈加在社会评价和朋友偏好上倾向于社会善念人物, 并且此社会善念理解能力与心理理论的发展呈显著正相关, 且此相关在控制了年龄、执行功能及亲社会性后依然稳定存在, 但社会善念理解与亲社会性并不相关。此结果表明, 心理理论可能对社会善念理解的发展有重要作用。     

European American and Chinese parents' responses to children's success and failure: implications for children's responses

The authors examined cultural differences in parents' responses to their children's performance. In Study 1 (N = 421), Chinese 5th graders reported that their parents de-emphasized their academic success and emphasized their academic failure, whereas their American counterparts reported that their parents did the opposite. This partially accounted for Chinese (vs. American) children responding less positively to success and more negatively to failure. In Study 2 (N = 128), Chinese and American mothers' responses to their 4th and 5th graders' performance were observed in the laboratory. The cultural differences in children's reports of parents' responses documented in Study 1 were replicated; mothers' responses were also associated with children's subsequent performance. In addition, Chinese mothers were more involved than were American mothers, but their affect was similar. Taken together, the results suggest that parents' responses to children's performance may be a channel for cultural transmission and perpetuation of responses to performance.     

Scaling of theory-of-mind understandings in Chinese children

Prior research demonstrates that understanding of theory of mind develops at different paces in children raised in different cultures. Are these differences simply differences in timing, or do they represent different patterns of cultural learning? That is, to what extent are sequences of theory-of-mind understanding universal, and to what extent are they culture-specific? We addressed these questions by using a theory-of-mind scale to examine performance of 140 Chinese children living in Beijing and to compare their performance with that of 135 English-speaking children living in the United States and Australia. Results reveal a common sequence of understanding, as well as sociocultural differences in children's developing theories of mind.     

Are associations between parental divorce and children's adjustment genetically mediated? An adoption study

The hypothesis that the association between parental divorce and children's adjustment is mediated by genetic factors was examined in the Colorado Adoption Project, a prospective longitudinal study of 398 adoptive and biological families. In biological families, children who experienced their parents' separation by the age of 12 years exhibited higher rates of behavioral problems and substance use, and lower levels of achievement and social adjustment, compared with children whose parents' marriages remained intact. Similarly, adopted children who experienced their (adoptive) parents' divorces exhibited elevated levels of behavioral problems and substance use compared with adoptees whose parents did not separate, but there were no differences on achievement and social competence. The findings for psychopathology are consistent with an environmentally mediated explanation for the association between parent divorce and children's adjustment; in contrast, the findings for achievement and social adjustment are consistent with a genetically mediated explanation involving passive genotype-environment correlation.     

Gender differences in the relationship between young children's peer-related social competence and individual differences in theory of mind

In this study, the author examined the relationship between theory-of-mind understanding and preschool-aged children's peer-related social competence. One hundred eleven 3- to 5-year-old children (48 boys, 63 girls) participated in 2 theory-of-mind tasks designed to assess their understanding of false belief. Teachers rated children's peer-related social behavior in terms of prosocial behavior, aggressive or disruptive behavior, and shy or withdrawn behavior. Results indicated that, after controlling for age, theory-of-mind understanding significantly predicted aggressive or disruptive behavior for boys and prosocial behavior for girls. Theory-of-mind understanding also was related to lower scores of shy or withdrawn behavior for boys. Results are discussed in terms of the gender differences in the factors contributing to early peer competence.     

"Do as I say, not as I do": family influences on children's safety and risk behaviors

OBJECTIVE: Although there is considerable speculation that family-based socialization processes influence children's safety and risk behaviors, few studies have addressed this important issue. The present study compared the impact of parent practices and teaching about safety on children's current behaviors and their intended future behaviors when they reach adulthood. DESIGN AND MEASURES: Children 7 to 12 years of age were interviewed and asked to report on their parents' practices and teachings (discussions, expectations for children's behavior) regarding five common safety behaviors. As well, the children reported on their own current practices and how they intended to behave when an adult. When appropriate, they provided explanations about why their parents engage in fewer safety behaviors than they required of their children. RESULTS: Children's current behavior was best predicted by parental teaching, however, how children planned to behave when they were adults was best predicted by parents' practices. Children attributed less frequent safety behaviors by their parents than themselves to general attributes of adults and their parent having special skills that made the safety practices less necessary than was true for children. CONCLUSION: These results highlight family influences on children's adoption of safety and risk practices and support the notion of intergenerational transmission of risk behaviors.     

Retention of Hispanic/Latino students in first grade: Child, parent, teacher, school, and peer predictors

A sample of 283 Hispanic children with literacy performance at entrance to first grade below the median for their school district was studied as part of a larger research project on the predictors of grade retention in grade 1. Following retention decisions, 51 Hispanic students were retained in first grade. Low literacy skills, being young at entrance to first grade, low ego resilience, low support in the teacher-student relationship, and parents' low sense of responsibility for their children's educational outcomes predicted retention decisions. Hierarchical logistics regression investigated the contribution of six categories of variables (academic competencies; socio-demographic characteristics; social, emotional, and behavioral adjustment; resiliency, school context; and home environment) to retention. Controlling for literacy, only being young for grade and parents' low sense of responsibility for their children's adjustment to school made a direct contribution to retention. Early literacy skills were higher for children enrolled in bilingual classrooms than for children in non-bilingual classrooms. Implications for educational policy are discussed.     

幼儿心理理论的发展与其日常同伴交往关系的研究

通过行为观察(儿童与同伴的一对一游戏)、同伴提名和教师评估,探讨心理理论发展与儿童日常同伴交往之间的关系。52名4~5岁的学前儿童参与了本实验。研究结果表明:(1)4岁以后,儿童的心理理论能力产生了实质性的变化。(2)幼儿心理理论的发展与儿童游戏情境中的同伴交往具有显著的正相关,心理理论发展水平不同的儿童在游戏中的“交往敏感”和“交往表达”两方面具有极其显著的差异。(3)儿童的心理理论水平整体上与同伴提名、教师评估相关不显著,但与儿童的亲社会行为具有紧密的关系。我们推测,儿童心理理论的发展通过影响亲社会行为间接指导儿童日常生活中的同伴交往与同伴关系。     

Effects of mothers' perceptions of children's competence: the moderating role of mothers' theories of competence

There is much evidence that parents' perceptions of children's competence affect the development of children's academic functioning. In the current research, the possibility that this is moderated by parents' theories about the stability of competence was examined. In a 2-wave, 1-year study of 126 children (9 to 12 years old) and their mothers, children's academic functioning (i.e., grades, perceptions of competence, attributions for performance, and mastery orientation) and affective functioning (i.e., self-esteem and depressive symptoms) were examined. Among mothers with relatively high entity theories, their perceptions acted as self-fulfilling prophecies foreshadowing children's academic and affective functioning over time. However, among mothers with relatively low entity theories, mothers' perceptions did not predict children's academic and affective functioning.     

Coparenting and early conscience development in the family

In the current research, the authors examined children's observed compliance in a family clean-up paradigm and parents' reports of coparenting to predict young children's conscience (e.g., affective discomfort and moral regulation) in a sample of 58 families with two parents and at least two children. The authors found relations between parents' reports of children's conscience development and observer-rated compliance in a family clean-up session, and significant correlations between coparenting and conscience development. There were a greater number of significant results for younger, 2-year-old siblings than for older siblings, which may reflect the importance of the period between 2 and 3 years for the emergence of conscience. Multiple regressions revealed that younger siblings' age, observed compliance/noncompliance, and parents' reports of coparenting were all significant in predicting parents' reports of affective discomfort and moral regulation. Findings underscore the importance of continuing research on whole-family dynamics when studying young children's early conscience and moral regulation.     

幼儿心理理论表现的任务特异性分析

研究以90名3～5岁幼儿为被试,采用相同材料和标准评估幼儿外表-事实的区分和错误信念认识,考察幼儿表现的任务特异性及材料刺激的影响。结果表明;幼儿的表现仍存在任务特异性,并且实验材料对儿童的外表-事实区分和错误信念认识具有重要影响。在解释这些结果时,特殊领域知识习得观似乎优于表征缺失理论。     

父母教养态度与儿童在2-4岁期间的问题行

考察父母的教养态度和儿童在2—4岁间的问题行为的发展变化。采用交叉时序滞后设计,对172名儿童从2岁起进行2年追踪,在被试2岁和4岁时,分别对他们的父母进行间卷调查。结果发现：儿童外显问题行为与父母教养态度的相互作用较强,儿童在2岁时的外显问题行为可以预测4岁时母亲的惩罚性,内隐问题行为与父母教养态度的相互作用较弱;从2岁到4岁之间,儿童外显问题行为具有较高的稳定性,内隐问题行为的稳定性相对略低,父母教养态度也都具有一定的稳定性。     

儿童气质和父母教养方式与其陌生环境中语言表达水平

通过对64名7岁北京市儿童的实验室观察来了解他们气质特点和语言表达水平,并对儿童家长进行教养方式的问卷调查。研究发现父母的教养方式尤其是父亲的严格教养方式,与儿童的语言表达水平有显著正相关;儿童的气质与其语言表达水平的相关在个别维度上显著;儿童的气质与其父母的教养方式间存在一定的相互影响,二者相互作用共同影响着儿童的语言表达水平。     

Remembering children's emotions: sources of concordant and discordant accounts between parents and children.

Parents were asked to recall recent events that had evoked happiness, sadness, anger, and fear in their children. Children (N = 77, 2.3-6.6 years) indicated whether they remembered each event, and if so, they described the event and how it had made them feel. Agreement between parent and child concerning how the child felt varied as a function of emotion. Children agreed with their parents' emotion attributions most often for events that parents recalled as having evoked happiness and sadness, less often for fear, and least often for anger. Children disagreed with parents' attributions of happiness and sadness most often when parents and children differed concerning the attribution of children's goals. Discordant reports about children's anger were most frequent when parents and children reported conflicting goals. Discordant reports about fear were most frequent when parents and children focused on different parts of the temporal sequence surrounding the event.     

GENDER DIVISION OF TASKS BY PARENTS AND THEIR CHILDREN

The division of parenting tasks between wives and husbands was explored in a sample of 279 Australian families containing a 9–1 1-year-old child, and the children's performance of household tasks was compared with their parents' division of labor. Three parenting factors (domestic care, leisure/enrichment, and psychological), and four child factors (handyman, domestic, maturity, and babysitting) were obtained. Mothers were more active than fathers on all three parenting factors, but significant differences were found between parents of differing SES and cultural backgrounds. Among children, the greatest sex difference was found on the handyman factor, where boys greatly outperformed girls. Boys' performance on this factor was not related to parental division of labor or social background, but girls' performance was higher when they were only children and when they lived in higher SES families. Girls outperformed boys on the domestic and maturity factors. Parenting style, SES, and cultural background also were significantly related to these factor scores. Apart from child's sex, cultural background was the strongest predictor of children's task performance.     

Prediction of children's empathy-related responding from their effortful control and parents' expressivity

In this study, the linear and interactive relations of children's effortful control and parents' emotional expressivity to children's empathy-related responses were examined. Participants were 214 children, 4.5 to 8 years old. Children's effortful control was negatively related to their personal distress and was positively related to their sympathy. Parents' positive expressivity was marginally negatively related to children's personal distress and was marginally positively related to children's dispositional sympathy. Parents' negative expressivity was positively related to children's personal distress, but primarily at high levels of children's effortful control. Moreover, parents' negative expressivity was negatively related to children's situational sympathy at low levels of effortful control but was positively related to children's dispositional sympathy at high levels of effortful control. There were also quadratic relations between the measures of parents' expressivity and children's empathy-related responses.     

自闭症和智力障碍儿童行为问题与父母焦虑的关系:育儿压力的中介作用与领悟社会支持的调节作用

为探讨自闭症和智力障碍儿童行为问题与其父母焦虑的关系及其内在作用机制,研究采用问卷法对1023名自闭症和智力障碍儿童父母进行调查。结果表明：(1)自闭症和智力障碍儿童行为问题对父母焦虑具有正向预测作用;(2)育儿压力在儿童行为问题和父母焦虑间起中介作用;(3)儿童行为问题与育儿压力的关系受到领悟社会支持水平的调节,调节作用只在智力障碍儿童父母群体中显著。研究结果有助于揭示自闭症和智力障碍儿童行为问题对父母焦虑的影响及作用机制,对改善自闭症和智力障碍儿童父母育儿压力与焦虑具有一定指导意义。     

Evaluation of a short-term group therapy program for children with behavior problems and their parents.

The current study investigated the effectiveness of a short-term, cognitive behavioral program for 106 primary school-aged children referred with externalizing behavior problems and their parents, compared with 39 children and their parents on a waiting-list to be treated. Exploring Together' comprised a children's group (anger management, problem-solving and social skills training), a parents' group (parenting skills training and dealing with parents' own issues), and a combined children's and parents' group (to target parent-child interactions). The program reduced children's behavior problems and improved their social skills at home. Changes in children's behaviors and social skills at home were generally maintained at 6- and 12-month follow-up. Implications of the findings for improving interventions for childhood externalizing behavior problems are discussed.     

The role of mothers' control in children's mastery orientation: a time frame analysis

Important to understanding the process by which parents' control shapes children's motivation is identifying the time frame in which it does so. To this end, mothers and their 4-year-old children were observed interacting for 15 min while working on a challenging task twice over 6 months. Mothers' control and children's mastery orientation were coded in 1-min intervals at both times. Analyses over the 6 months indicated that mothers' heightened control foreshadowed children's dampened mastery because mothers' control was stable over time. Analyses over the 15-min interactions revealed that the more controlling mothers were one minute, the less mastery oriented children were the next minute, adjusting for their earlier mastery. Moreover, when mothers began these interactions highly controlling, children's mastery was particularly likely to decrease over the 15 min. Taken together, the results suggest the effect of mothers' control on children's mastery is immediate and maintained through mothers' continued controlling practices.