Gender differences in moral development

Sixty-nine Midwestern middle-class children and adolescents were tested on justice and care orientations when reasoning abstract and interpersonal moral dilemmas. Nona Lyons' (“Two Perspectives on Self, Relationships and Morality,” Harvard Educational Review, 1983, 53, 125–145) scoring method was used to score subjects' responses. A 2(sex)×2(age) analysis of variance run on the total justice and care scores, as well as each individual dilemma, supported Carol Gilligan's (In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982) theory that two distinct ways of thinking about moral problems exist — justice and care — and are differentially related to gender. Girls emphasized the morality of care significantly more than justice. Contrary to Gilligan (1982) and Lyons (1983), however, boys in both age groups emphasized the morality of justice and care equally. Data from the interpersonal dilemmas using Lyons's (1983) coding scheme are consistent with J. Piaget (The Moral Judgement of the Child, New York: Free Press, 1966) and Lawrence Kohlberg [“The Cognitive-Developmental Approach,” in D. A. Goslin (Ed.), Handbook of Socialization Theory and Research, Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969]: older subjects became more justice oriented and younger subjects emphasized the morality of care. Sex differences on Kohlberg's stage theory were not significant and the protagonist's gender in the Heinz dilemma had no effect on moral reasoning.     

Book Reviews

Book reviewed in this article: The Nature of Human Intelligence by J. P. Guilford, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967 Toward a Theory of Instruction by Jerome S. Bruner, Center for Cognitive Studies, Harvard University. Cambridge, Mass.: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1967 Teaching Music Creatively in the Elementary School by Irving and Herbert Cheyette. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1969     

Recent books

Abstract

Guidano, V. F. (1987). Complexity of the self: A developmental approach to psychopathology and therapy. New York: Guilford Press. ISBN 0–89862–012–0, 248 pp, £19.95/$35.95

Hamilton, V., Bower, G. H., & Frijda, N. H. (Eds) (1988). Cognitive perspectives on emotion and motivation. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 90–247–3694–3, 453 pp, £64.00/$114.00

Scherer, K. R. (Ed.) (1988). Facets of emotion: Recent research. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc. ISBN 0–8058–0141–3, 267 pp, £27.50/ $46.95; pbk, ISBN 0–8058–0142–1, £17.00/$29.50

Ciompi, L. (1988). The psyche and schizophrenia: A bond between affect and logic. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0–674–71990–5, 327 pp, £27.95

Horowitz, M. J. (Ed.) (1988). Psychodynamics and cognition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0–226–35368–0, 389 pp, £21.95

Hannover, B. (1988). Evaluation of performance: A judgmental approach. New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0–387–96768–0, 164 pp.

Alloy, L. B. (1988). Cognitive processes in depression. New York, Guilford Press. ISBN 0–89862–706–0, 388 pp, $52.00/£30.50

Barlow, D. H. (1988). Anxiety and its disorders: The nature and treatment of anxiety and panic. New York, Guilford Press. ISBN 0–89862–720–6, 698 pp, $51.50/£38     

Brief eviews

Developments in humanistic psychology: Recent books by division members

Christopher M, Aanstoos (Ed.). Studies in Humanistic Psychology. West Georgia College Studies in the Social Sciences (Volume 29). Carrollton, GA: West Georgia College, 1991, 216 pp. $5.00.

Frank Barron. Creativity and Psychological Health: Origins of Personal Vitality and Creative Freedom. Buffalo: C.E.F. Press, 1990.

James F. T. Bugental. Intimate Journeys: Stories from Life‐Changing Therapy. San Francisco: Jossey‐Bass, 1990, 335 pp. $24.95.

Alvin R. Mahrer. How to Do Experiential Psychotherapy: A Manual for Practitioners. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 1989. 153 pp. $12.95.

Alvin R. Mahrer. Dreamwork in Psychotherapy and Self‐Change. New York: W. W. Norton. 372 pp. $34.95.

Clark Moustakas. Heuristic Research: Design, Methodology, and Applications. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1990. 130 pp. $14.95.

Clark Moustakas. Loneliness. New York: Prentice Hall Press, 1990, $6.95. and Clark Moustakas. Loneliness and Love. New York: Prentice Hall Press, 1990. 146 pp. $7.95.

Kirk J. Schneider. The Paradoxical Self: Toward an Understanding of our Contradictory Nature. New York: Plenum Press, 1990. 235 pp. $20.95.

M. Brewster Smith. Values, Self & Society: Toward a Humanistic Social Psychology. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1991, 289 pp. $34.95.

Richard E. Felder and Avrum Geurin Weiss. Experiential Psychotherapy: A Symphony of Selves. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1991. 164 pp.     

Sustained attentional and disattentional abilities and arousability: Factor analysis and relationships to hypnotic susceptibility

The neurophysiologically separate dimensions of deeply focused, sustained attention and arousability are shown to be differentially related to hypnotic susceptibility. University undergraduates, 98 men and 112 women, were administered the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility; the Group Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C (SHSS:C); and questionnaires that assessed attentional abilities (Differential Attentional Processes Inventory (DAPI), Tellegen Absorption Scale (TAS)), Extraversion (Eysenck Personality Questionnaire), strength of the nervous system (Strelau Temperament Scale (STS)), augmenting-reducing (Vando Reducer-Augmenter Scale (RAS)), and emotionality (Affect Intensity Measure (AIM)). Women were significantly higher on TAS, DAPI dual attention physical-cognitive scale, and AIM; men were significantly higher on TAS and STI Strength of Excitation Scale. Separate factor analyses for men and women separately yielded fairly similar four-factor solutions. The first major factor, defined by DAPI Moderately Focused Attention and Dual Attention scales, represented moderately sustained attention in a complex environment with limited interference from competing stimuli. The extremely involved and focused attention factor, defined by the TAS and DAPI Extremely Focused Attention Scale, had hypnotic susceptibility loaded more strongly for men than women. The arousability factor was defined by EPQ Extraversion, STI Mobility of Nervous System (MNS) scale, and RAS. The neo-Pavlovian nervous system processes factor was defined by the STI Strength of Excitation and Strength of Inhibition scales; the STI MNS scale also loaded on this factor for men. Only for women were introverts more hypnotizable than extraverts. Results support H. J. Crawford and J. H. Gruzelier's (1992) in E. Fromm and M. Nash (Eds.) Contemporary Perspectives in Hypnosis Research (pp. 227–266) New York: Guildford Press) neurophysiological model of hypnosis that proposes that highly hypnotizable persons have a more efficient fronto-limbic sustained attentional and disattentional system.     

BOOK REVIEWS

Book reveiw in this article
Getting Free : A Handbook for Women in Abusive Relationships, G inny N icartt , Seattle: Seal Press, 1982, xxvi + 272 pp., $7.95 (paperback). Order from the Seal Press, 312 South Washington, Seattle, WA 98104.
Wife-Battering: A Systems Theory Approach , J ean G iles -S ims , New York: Guilford Press, 1983, xiv + 193 pp., $17.50 (hardback).
The Abusive Partner: An Analysis oj Domestic Battering , M akia R oy , (Ed.) New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1982, xii + 319 pp., $18.95 (hardback).
In the shadow of the past: Psychology portrays the sexes , M ikiam L ewin (Ed.), New York: Columbia University Press, 1984, 344 pp., $30.00 (hardback).
Two paychecks: Life in dual-earner families, JOAN ALDOUS (Ed.), Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1982, 247 pp.
Work and family. Changing roles of men and women, P atricia V oydanoff (Ed.), Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield, 1984, 383 pp.
Women at work, M ary F rank F ox and S harlene H esse -BIBER, Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield, 1984, 276 pp.     

Book reviews

Gelman, R. and Gallistel, C. R. The Child's understanding of Number. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. 1978. Pp. 260. ISBN 0 674 11636 4. £9.45.

Boden, M. A. Piaget. London: Fontana. 1979. Pp. 174. ISBN 000 635537 4. £1.25.

Vygotsky, L. S. Mind in Society. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. 1979. Pp. 159. ISBN 0 674 57628 4. $12.50.

Catania, A. Charles. Learning. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. 1979. Pp. xi + 406. ISBN 0 13 527432 X. $16.95 £11.00.

Kagan, J., Kearsley, R. B. and Zelazo, P. R. Infancy: Its place in Human Development. Second edition. Cambridge, mass.: Harvard University Press. 1979. Pp. 462. ISBN 0 674 45260 7. $17.50.

Shaffer, D. and Dunn, J. (Eds). The First Year of Life: Psychological and Medical Implications of Early Experience. Chichester: Wileys. 1979. Pp. 221. ISBN 0 471 99734 X. £11.80.     

Book Reviews

BRUNO BETTELHEIM : The Empty Fortress: Infantile Autism and the Birth of the Self. The Free Press, New York. 1967. $9.95. (£4 in England).

GERALD O'GORMAN: The Nature of Childhood Autism. (Illustrated, 8 plates)

C. M. HEINICKE and I. J. WESTHEIMER: Brief Separations.     

Book reviews

Arnold, M. Memory and the brain. Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 1984. Pp. 532. ISBN 0-89859-290-9. £47.90.

Green, T. R. G., Payne, S. P. and van der Veer, G. C. (Eds.). The psychology of computer use.. London: Academic Press. 1983. Pp. 225. ISBN 0-12-2974204. $9.50.

Stunkard, A. J. and Stellar, E. (Eds.). Eating and its disorders. New York: Raven Press. 1984. Pp. 302. ISBN 0-89004-891-6. $58.50.

Spillmann, L. and Wooten, B. R. (Eds.) Sensory experience, adaptation, and perception: Festschrift for Zero Kohler. Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 1984. Pp. xxvii + 748. ISBN 0 8985-3-218-6. £70.85.

Geschwind, N. and Galaburda, A. M. (Eds.)Cerebral dominance: The biological foundations. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. 1984. Pp. 232. ISBN 0-674-10658-X. £24.35.

Annett, M. Left, right, hand and brain: The right shift theory. 1985. London and Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Pp. xiii + 474. ISBN 0-86377418-5 £29.95.

Ericsson, K. A. and Simon, H. A. Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data. Cambridge, Mass.: The M.I.T. Press. 1984. Pp. 426. ISBN 0-262-05029-3. £28.95.     

Re:Views

Evaluating Federal Social Programs: An Uncertain Art: Sar A. Levitan and Gregory Wurzburg ; Kalamazoo, Mich.: W. E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, 1979 The Overeaters: Eating Styles and Personality: Jonathan Kurland Wise and Susan Kierr Wise ; New York: Human Sciences Press, 1979 Transpersonal Communication: How to Establish Contact with Yourself and Others: Barry K. Weinhold and Lynn C. Elliott ; Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1979 Therapy American Style: Personal Power through Self-Help: Kenneth B. Metheny and Richard J. Riordan ; Chicago Dynamics of Human Relations in Vocational Education: The Development of Self-Confidence and a Sense of Mastery: Duane L. Blake ; Cranston, R. I.: Carroll Press, 1979 Adult Female Human Being in the 1980s: A Handbook for Lifelong Education: Fran Murray and Mildred Erickson ; East Lansing, Mich.: Michigan State University Press, 1980 The Winner's Way: A Transactional Guide for Living, Working, and Learning: Gisele Weisman ; Monterey, Calif.: Brooks/Cole, 1980 Marriages and Families: Essie Lee , Ed.; New York: Julian Messner, 1978 “I'm Going to Visit My Daddy”: Deirdre Conway Rand ; San Rafael, Calif. Bias in Mental Testing: Arthur R. Jensen ; New York Handbook of Human Services for Older Persons: Monica Bychowski Holmes and Douglas Holmes ; New York Family Therapy and Evaluation through Art: Hanna Yaxa Kwiatkowska ; Springfield, III. Counseling Strategies and Objectives: Second Edition : Harold Hackney and L. Sherilyn Cormier ; Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Group Counseling: Fundamental Concepts and Procedures: Robert C. Berg and Garry L. Landreth ; Muncie, Ind. Alcoholism: A Treatment Manual: Wayne Poley , Gary Lea , and Gail Vibe ; New York Go For It!: Martha Douglas ; San Francisco National Directory of Women's Employment Programs: Who They Are, What They Do Women's Work Force of Wider Opportunities for Women : Washington, D.C. Learning after College: Nevitt Sanford ; Orinda, Calif. Credit by Examination Comes of Age: Implications of APP and CLEP for Colleges, Schools, and Students: The College Board ; Princeton, N.J. Not Working: An Oral History of the Unemployed: Harry Maurer ; New York Talking It Out: A Guide to Effective Communication and Problem Solving: Joseph M. Strayhorn , Jr .; Champaign, III. The Path of Least Resistance: preparing Employees for Change: Ken Hultman ; Austin, Tex.: Learning Concepts, 1979 A Special Educator's Guide to Vocational Training: Robert A. Weisgerber ; Springfield, III.: Charles C. Thomas, 1980 Ethical and Professional Standards for Academic Psychologists and Counsellors: Charles W. Sherrer and M. Sylvia Sherrer ; Springfield, Ill.: Charles C Thomas, 1980 Jogotherapy: Jogging as a Therapeutic Strategy Frederick D. Harper : Alexandria, Va.: Douglass Publishers, 1979     

Reactive and proactive control in incarcerated and community adolescents and young adults

This study compared the cognitive control skills of male incarcerated adolescents (n = 44), male control adolescents (n = 33), male incarcerated young adults (n = 41), and male control young adults (n = 35) using the AX-continuous performance test (AX-CPT). This test measures proactive control (the ability to maintain a mental representation of goal-related information in preparation for a behavioral response) and reactive control (the ability to activate goal-related information in response to an external trigger). Incarcerated individuals had more difficulty implementing proactive control, whereas control individuals had more difficulty implementing reactive control. Adolescents had more difficulty with both reactive and proactive control compared with young adults, suggesting that both skills improve with age. Additional analyses indicated that the effect of age on proactive control was due to the presence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, whereas the effect of age on reactive control appeared to be a natural developmental trend that could not be explained by other variables. These findings are considered in relation to the dual mechanisms of control theory [Braver, T. S., Gray, J. R., & Burgess, G. C. (2007). Explaining the many varieties of working memory variation: Dual mechanisms of cognitive control. In A. R. A. Conway, C. Jarrold, M. J. Kane, A. Miyake, & J. N. Towse (Eds.), Variation in Working Memory. New York: Oxford University Press.].     

Jane Ellen Harrison's contribution to the study of religion

Sandra J. Peacock, Jane Ellen Harrison: The Mask and the Self, New Haven, CT, Yale University Press, 1988.     

Book reviews and books received

T.D. Vaughan (ed.): Concepts of Counselling. London: Bedford Square Press, 1976. £1.50.

V.J. Derlega and A.L. Chaikin: Sharing Intimacy: What We Reveal to Others and Why. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1975. £1.95.

R.B. Sloane, F.R. Staples, A.H. Cristol, N.J. Yorkston, and K. Whipple: Psychotherapy versus Behaviour Therapy. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1975. £7.20.

Dean F. Juniper: Decision-Making for Schools and Colleges. Oxford: Pergamon, 1976. £5 (paperback).

Gaynor Nurse: Counselling and the Nurse. Aylesbury, Bucks.: HM & M Publications, 1975. £1.50.

Rosemary Lee: Students at Risk. Cambridge: CRAC/Hobsons Press, 1976. £4.

Margaret I. Reid and Robert J. McDowell: Guidance in the Secondaty School. Windsor: NFER, 1976. £1.85.     

Book Reviews

Book reviewed in this article: How to Get Profitable Ideas: For Creative Problem Solving. by John D. Yeck, New York: McGrazo-Hill, 1965 Industrial Creativity — the psychology of the inventor, by Joseph Rossman, New Hyde Park, New York: University Books, 1964 Put Your Mother on the Ceiling. by Richard deMille, New York: Walker & Company, 1967 Teaching for Creative Endeavor. edited by William B. Michael, Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1968 Creative Living for Today. by Maxwell Maltz, M.D., New York: Trident Press, 1967 Creative Power: The Education of Youth in the Creative Arts. by Hughes Mearns (Second Revised Edition), New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1958, Reprinted 1968 Creative Teaching in the Elementary School. by Abraham Shumsky, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1965 Language and Thought. by John B. Carroll, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1964 The Logic of Scientific Discovery. by Karl R. Popper, New York: Basic Books, 1959     

The effects of receiving help: Gender differences in motivation and performance

This study examined gender differences among Caucasian college students in reactions to receiving unsolicited help from a similar peer on an educational task. We found that women, but not men, were more likely to attribute their relatively poor performance to a lack of ability when they received help than when they did not. Also, women who received help performed better on a subsequent, unrelated task than women who did not receive help. In contrast, men who received help spent less time on the subsequent task and performed worse on it than men who did not receive help. Implications of the results for the threat to self-esteem model [A. Nadler (1986) “Self-Esteem and the Seeking and Receiving of Help: Theoretical and Empirical Perspectives,” in B. A. Maher and N. B. Maher (Eds.), Progress in Experimental Personality Research (Vol. 14), New York, Academic Press] and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

Book reviews

Book reviewed in this article: Hans F. Huebner, Endorphins, Eating Disorders and Other Addictive Behaviors. New York, W. W. Norton Bryan Lask and Rachel Bryant-Waugh (eds), Childhood Onset Anorexia Nervosa and Related Eating Disorders. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Ltd Rosalyn M. Meadow and Lillie Weiss, Women's Conflicts About Eating and Sexuality. Harrington Park Press     

Book reviews and books received

Elisabeth R. Geleerd, M.D. (Editor): The Child Analyst at Work. (Published by International Universities Press, Inc. New York. 1967 $7.00.)

HELENE DEUTSCH: Selected Problems of Adolescence. With Special Emphasis on Group Formation. (Monograph No. 3 of The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, International Universities Press, New York, 1967. 134 pages.)

CLARA CLAIRBORNE PARK : The Siege. Longmans. 1967.

BRIAN J. FELLOWS : The Discrimination Process and Development. Pergamon Press. 1968.     

The Social Meaning of Mood

Abstract

(Miller, N. F., &; Dollard, J. Social Learning and Imitation. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1941. Pp. 341.) Reviewed by Donald M. Johnson.     

Are there multiple channels through which we connect with beauty and excellence?

This research answers the question whether there are multiple channels through which we connect with beauty and excellence, and thus contributes to the understanding of the structure of appreciation. Two models were examined: the appreciation of beauty and excellence (ABE) model [Haidt, J., & Keltner, D. (2004). Appreciation of beauty and excellence [awe, wonder, elevation]. In C. Peterson & M.E.P. Seligman (Eds.). Character strengths and virtues (pp. 537–551). New York, NY: Oxford University Press], and the engagement with beauty model [Diessner, R., Solom, R., Frost, N.K., Parsons, L., & Davidson, J. (2008). Engagement with beauty: Appreciating natural, artistic, and moral beauty. The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 142, 303–329]. Study 1 describes the development and initial validation of the ABE Test (ABET), which assesses the types of appreciation included in Haidt and Keltner's (2004) model. In study 2, the ABE subscale of the Values In Action Inventory of Strengths [VIA-IS; Peterson, C., Park, N., & Seligman, M.E.P. (2005). Assessment of character strengths. In G.P. Koocher, J.C. Norcross, & S.S. Hill III (Eds.), Psychologists’ desk reference (Vol. 3, pp. 93–98). New York, NY: Oxford University Press], the Engagement with Beauty Scale (Diessner et al., 2008), and the ABET were included in a structural equation modeling analysis. Results suggested a new model encompassing the two previous ones, and distinguishing between natural beauty, artistic beauty, and non-aesthetic goodness.     

Book review

EVANS, R. M. The Perception of Color. New York: Wiley and Sons. 1974. Pp. xii + 248. £ 8.10.

ROSS, H. E. Behaviour and Perception in Strnge Enviroment. London: George Allen and Unwin. 1974. Pp. 171. £ 3.95. (Hardback), £ 1.95. (Peperback).

COOPER, J. R. BLOOM, F. E. and ROTH, R. H. The Biochemical Basis of Neuropharmacology. 2nd Ed. New York and London: Oxford University Press. 1974. Pp. 272. £ 2.50.

JOHNSON, F. N. (Ed.) Lithium Research and Teerapy. London: Acakemic Press. 1974. Pp. 570. £ 13.50.

GERGG, L. W. (Ed.) Cognition in Lerning and Memory. New York: Wiley. 1972. Pp. vii + 263. £ 5.85.

SCHIEFELBUSCH, R. L. and LLOYD, L. L. Language Perspectives-Acquisition, Retardation and Intervention. Macmillan: Baltimore, 1974. Pp 670. £ 7.95.

CHOMSKY, C. The Acquisition of Syntax of Syntax in Children form 5 to 10. Cambridge, Massa-chusetts: M. I. T. Press. 1969. Pp. 126.

Annual Review of Psychology. Vol. 25. Palo Alto, California: Annual Reviews Inc. 544 PP. $ 12.50.

HARRISON, B. Meaning and Structure: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. New York: Harper and Row. 1972. Pp. 318. £4.65.

MACKINTOSH, N. J. The Psychology of Animal Learning. Academic Press. 1974. Pp. 730. £ 8.00.

BURES, J., BURESOVA, O. and KRIVANEK, J. The Mechanism and Application of Leao's Spreading Depression of Electroephalagraphic Activity. New York: Academic Press. 1974. Pp. 410. £ 14.15.

SOLSO, R.L. (ED.). Theories in Cognitive Psychology: The LOyola Symposium. Potomac, Maryland: Lawrence Erlbaum associates. 1974. £ 7.95.

MURDOCK, B. B. Jr. Human Memory: Theory and Data. Potomac: Erlbaum (distributed by Wiley). 1974. Pp. 362. £ 6.85.

REED, S. K. Psychological Process in Pattern Recogntion. New York: Academic Press. 1973. $ 13.95.

RABBIT, P. M. A. and DORNIC, D. (Eds). Attention and Performance V. London: Academic Press. 1975. Pp. 732. £ 16.00.