Selective cardiovascular effects of stress and cigarette smoking in young women

In an earlier study, we found that men who smoked a cigarette and then engaged in a mildly stressful activity (video game) evidenced pronounced increases in heart rate and blood pressure, which were approximately equal to the sum of the effects produced by either smoking alone or stress alone. In the present study, a 2 (smoke vs. sham smoke) X 2 (stress vs. no stress) factorial design was used to evaluate the impact of stress and smoking on the cardiovascular responses of young women. The results revealed that the combination of stress and cigarette smoking produced blood pressure and heart rate responses that were larger than the additive effects of smoking and stress taken separately.     

Smoking, caffeine, and stress: effects on blood pressure and heart rate in male and female college students

This study examined the independent and joint effects of cigarette smoking and caffeine consumption on blood pressure (BP) and heart rate (HR) reactions to stress in male and female college students. Following an initial physiological baseline, participants received one of four experimental treatments (paced smoking, caffeine, smoking plus caffeine, or neither) and had BP and HR measured before, during, and after two stressful tasks. The results revealed that, compared with the control condition, caffeine ingestion enhanced the magnitude of stress-induced systolic BP and HR reactions. Smoking combined additively with stress, and the joint effect of smoking and caffeine was no greater than either taken alone. Males and females were generally similar in their BP and HR responses to smoking, caffeine, and stress. Inconsistencies with previous research and possible physiological mechanisms underlying the observed effects are discussed.     

Oral contraceptive use and hemodynamic, lipid, and fibrinogen responses to smoking and stress in women.

The effects of acute smoking and oral contraceptive (OC) use on cardiovascular, lipid, and fibrinogen stress responses were examined in 52 female smokers and nonsmokers, half of whom were using OCs. Women smoked or sham-smoked a cigarette and then performed 2 stressful tasks. Stress elicited increases in total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and in triglycerides among women who smoked, and in fibrinogen among all women. Smokers who used OCs had greater blood pressure increases to smoking and to stress than did smokers who did not use OCs. OC use was also associated with enhanced total peripheral resistance stress responses among women who smoked and cardiac output stress responses among women who sham-smoked. Results suggest that OC use moderates cardiovascular reactivity in smokers but not nonsmokers, enhancing vascular responsivity to smoking combined with stress and myocardial responsivity to stress alone.     

Links between physical fitness and cardiovascular reactivity and recovery to psychological stressors: A meta-analysis.

A meta-analysis of published studies with adult human participants was conducted to evaluate whether physical fitness attenuates cardiovascular reactivity and improves recovery from acute psychological stressors. Thirty-three studies met selection criteria; 18 were included in recovery analyses. Effect sizes and moderator influences were calculated by using meta-analysis software. A fixed effects model was fit initially; however, between-studies heterogeneity could not be explained even after inclusion of moderators. Therefore, to account for residual heterogeneity, a random effects model was estimated. Under this model, fit individuals showed significantly attenuated heart rate and systolic blood pressure reactivity and a trend toward attenuated diastolic blood pressure reactivity. Fit individuals also showed faster heart rate recovery, but there were no significant differences in systolic blood pressure or diastolic blood pressure recovery. No significant moderators emerged. Results have important implications for elucidating mechanisms underlying effects of fitness on cardiovascular disease and suggest that fitness may be an important confound in studies of stress reactivity.     

Chronic stress as a factor in physiologic reactivity to challenge

This study examined the hypothesis that chronic stress contributes to heightened cardiovascular reactivity. Chronic stress was operationalized as crowding stress associated with commercial-residential mixes in high-density neighborhoods. Seventeen residents of crowded neighborhoods and 24 residents of uncrowded neighborhoods worked on a challenging task while blood pressure and heart rate were measured. Self-report and biochemical measures indicated that the two groups differed in level of chronic stress. Results also indicated that chronic stress contributes to cardiovascular reactivity. Crowded residents showed greater increases in systolic and diastolic blood pressure and heart rate and took longer to return to baseline than did uncrowded residents. The few differences found between Type A and Type B residents were found only in the low-stress group.     

Aerobic fitness, psychological characteristics, and cardiovascular reactivity to stress

Examined the relations among aerobic fitness (AF), psychological characteristics, and cardiovascular reactivity using 62 men divided into highly fit and less fit groups based on a maximal treadmill exercise test. Several psychological and physiological variables were measured, and subjects' cardiovascular reactivity was assessed during a mental arithmetic task and during a video game task. Highly fit subjects showed a significantly smaller increase in both diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and heart rate (HR) and reported themselves to be less anxious and less angry than less fit subjects. Furthermore, controlling for subjects' scores on a scale assessing angry temperament reduced the relationship between AF and DBP reactivity to nonsignificant levels. These results suggest that degree of dispositional anger, which covaries with increased fitness, may contribute to the apparent relationship between AF and DBP--but not HR--reactivity.     

Type A behavior, personality hardiness, and cardiovascular responses to stress

Type A behavior and hardiness were examined as predictors of cardiovascular responses to stress in 68 male undergraduates. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP and DBP) and heart rate were monitored while subjects performed a difficult mirror-tracing task. Type A assessments based on the Structured Interview, but not those based on the Jenkins Activity Survey, were associated with significantly enhanced SBP and DBP elevations. Hardiness was associated with significantly reduced DBP responsiveness. In addition, a significant interaction indicated that the Type B-high hardiness group showed the least DBP reactivity. A near-significant interaction (p = .06) suggested that Type B-high hardiness subjects also reported the least anger. Further exploration of the data indicated that the challenge component of hardiness accounted for its relationship to DBP reactivity. These results have implications both for the psychophysiologic study of Type A behavior and for understanding the health-promoting effects of hardiness.     

Blood pressure hyperreactivity in non-human primates during dietary sodium combined with behavioral stress

The potential for behavioral stress alone or combined with dietary salt to augment pressor reactivity to the onset of daily experimental sessions was examined in normotensive, intact baboons over the course of four months. During twice daily experimental sessions, adult male baboons experienced food/shock conflict such that lever pulling not only served to earn food, but was also occasionally punished with cued mild electric shock. Blood pressure and heart rate were measured during a baseline period of fixed-ratio food reinforcement (3 weeks), during conflict stress (2 weeks), and after dietary salt was added to the daily conflict protocol (CONFLICT + SODIUM, 3 weeks). Reactivity, i.e., acute changes in blood pressure and heart rate to the daily experimental sessions, was not evident during food reinforcement sessions nor during the CONFLICT stress alone condition. The addition of a high salt diet virtually doubled blood pressure increases and heart rate decreases to the onset of experimental sessions. Average reactivities during CONFLICT + SODIUM periods were 11.2/7.9% delta for SBP/DBP (systolic/diastolic blood pressure, mmHg), and -5.65% delta for HR (heart rate, BPM). Neither atenolol nor hydrochlorothiazide diuretic significantly altered cardiovascular reactivity during CONFLICT + SODIUM in comparison to a preceding non-drug CONFLICT + SODIUM period. When atenolol and diuretic effects were directly compared, atenolol mildly augmented, while diuretic mildly decreased DBP but not SBP reactivity during CONFLICT + SODIUM. Reactivity was eliminated after salt loading and behavioral sessions were terminated. These findings provide evidence that enhanced salt ingestion may synergistically act with behavioral stress to produce pressor hyperresponsiveness to otherwise benign environmental events.     

Spouse and parent-offspring similarities in cardiovascular response to mental arithmetic and isometric hand-grip

Thirty spouse pairs were recruited for a stress protocol consisting of alternating stress and relaxation periods. Repeated measurements of blood pressure, heart rate, and blood volume pulse were obtained. Spouse pairs were parents of young adult sibling pairs who had previously participated in a slightly different version of the protocol. Although spouses exhibited some behavioral similarities, there were no significant similarities in cardiovascular response to stress. However, despite the fact that parents and their offspring were tested on different occasions using somewhat different procedures, some similarities in cardiovascular reactivity were observed. Significant parent-offspring similarities in heart-rate response to mental arithmetic and diastolic blood pressure response to isometric hand-grip were observed, as well as several behavioral similarities. Assortative mating and the nature of one's current home environment seem to be less important in the familial aggregation of cardiovascular reactivity to stress than early environmental and/or genetic factors.     

Cardiovascular reactions to psychological stress and abuse history: the role of occurrence,frequency, and type of abuse

Background and objectives: Extreme cardiovascular reactions to psychological stress have been associated with traumatic life experiences. Previous studies have focused on the occurrence or frequency of abuse rather than type of abuse. We examined how occurrence, frequency, and the type of abuse history are related to cardiovascular reactivity (CVR) to acute psychological stress. Design: The study consisted of between group and continuous analyses to examine the association between occurrence, type, and frequency of abuse with cardiovascular reactions to acute psychological stress. Methods: Data from 64 participants were collected. Heart rate, systolic blood pressure, and diastolic blood pressure were measured at baseline and during a standard mental arithmetic stress task. Results: Individuals who experienced abuse showed diminished CVR to acute psychological stress; this was driven specifically by the history of sexual abuse. Frequency of abuse did not relate to stress reactions. Conclusions: These findings accord with previous work suggesting a relationship between traumatic life experience and hypoarousal in physiological reactivity and extend previous findings by suggesting the relationship may be driven by sexual abuse.     

急性心理应激对多囊卵巢综合征患者的影响

为了了解PCOS患者易患抑郁症、肥胖、代谢综合征、心血管疾病、糖尿病的原因。通过对28例PCOS患者和28例体重指数、年龄匹配的健康对照组回应公众演讲压力进行分析,在回应公众演讲压力时,PCOS组和对照组均有比较显著的焦虑程度、ACTH、皮质醇、心率和血压升高（P均〈0．01）;但PCOS患者焦虑程度、ACTH、皮质醇...     

Cardiovascular reactivity and interpersonal influence: active coping in a social context

Previous studies have demonstrated that effortful attempts to secure positive outcomes or avoid negative outcomes produce significant increases in systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), and heart rate (HR). Although these effects of active coping on cardiovascular reactivity are central in current psychosomatic theories, virtually all of the research to date has used impersonal, asocial tasks. Our two studies examined the cardiovascular effects of effortful attempts to influence other people. In Study 1, male subjects attempting to influence the opinions of their discussion partner to improve their own chances of winning money displayed significantly greater SBP, DBP, and HR reactivity. In Study 2, we obtained similar effects on SBP and DBP reactivity in men and women, while both preparing an influence attempt and making that attempt. Furthermore, reactivity levels were larger as the magnitude of incentive for successful persuasion increased. Implications of this interpersonal equivalent of active coping for the development of cardiovascular disease are discussed.     

Type a behavior,irritability, and cardiovascular response

Previous research suggests that high levels of hostility may augment the cardiovascular reactivity and risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) associated with Type A behavior. In contrast, other research indicates that the tendency to deny or suppress anger is associated with enhanced cardiovascular reactivity and risk of CHD. To delineate further the combined role of anger processes and Type A behavior in CHD risk, this study examined the interactive effects of Type A behavior and self-reported irritability on cardiovascular response to a challenging mental task. Type A and Type B college students were further classified as either high or low in self-reported irritability. Type A subjects who were low in self-reported irritability evidenced greater cardiovascular reactivity (i.e., systolic blood pressure and pulse rate) than did Type B subjects low in irritability. However, Type A subjects who were high in irritability tended to demonstrate less cardiovascular response than Type B subjects high in irritability. Further, Type A's low in self-reported irritability evidenced greater cardiovascular response than high-irritability Type A's. It is suggested that reduced reporting of irritability by Type A's may reflect suppression or denial, and further that this reduced reporting is associated with enhanced cardiovascular responsivity.     

Twin similarity in cardiovascular stress response

Cardiovascular (CV) responses to laboratory stressors were measured in 12 pairs of identical and 21 pairs of fraternal adult male twins. For this study, blood pressure and heart rate were measured during a mental arithmetic task and the Cold Pressor Test. The analyses of cardiovascular responses to these stressors were designed to test for the presence of a genetic component in cardiovascular reactivity in an adult sample of twins aged 54-64 years. The results suggest that certain measures of cardiovascular reactivity to laboratory stressors may be heritable for both physical and psychological stressors. The possible role of this genetic component in the etiology and course of coronary heart disease is discussed.     

Spirituality Predicts Health and Cardiovascular Responses to Stress in Young Adult Women

The primary focus of this study was to investigate the roles of spirituality and religiosity in self-reported physical health, and to determine whether there is an association between an individuals spirituality and cardiovascular responses to two stressors. Fifty-two females participated in both a betrayal interview and a structured interview, during which blood pressure and heart rate were monitored. Spirituality, as assessed by the Spiritual Well-being Scale, was associated with perceived stress, subjective well-being, and medication use. The Existential Well-being subscale predicted fewer physical health symptoms and was associated with lower mean heart rate and decreased heart rate reactivity. The Religious Well-being subscale was associated with reduced systolic blood pressure reactivity in response to the structured interview. These findings suggest that spirituality may have a salutary effect on health, even in a fairly young sample. While previous studies have predominantly reported that religion, as well as spirituality, have a health protective effect, this study did not find strong support for that conclusion. Religiosity in this age group may still be undergoing developmental maturity, which may explain the lack of relationships to health.     

The Varied Impact of Social Support on Cardiovascular Reactivity

Two experiments examine the hypothesis that the effect of social support on cardiovascular reactivity depends on participants' evaluative concerns and their motivation for task performance. In both experiments, heart rate and blood pressure were recorded while participants gave a speech to either a supportive or nonsupportive audience, with the experimenter either present or absent. Experiment 1 showed that support decreased performer reactivity relative to nonsupport when the experimenter was present, whereas support increased reactivity when the experimenter was absent. Experiment 2 replicated this pattern and helped clarify interpretation of the results. The results may help resolve inconsistencies in previous support and reactivity literature, and suggest that social support may not always improve health by lowering cardiovascular reactivity.     

Cardiovascular reactivity and neuroticism: results from a laboratory and controlled ambulatory stress protocol

A laboratory and controlled ambulatory protocol was used to study whether there are differences in the cardiovascular reactivity of persons varying in neuroticism, the disposition to experience negative subjective emotions. Thirty-six individuals (19 men, 17 women) who scored approximately 1 standard deviation above or below the mean on the NEO PI-R Neuroticism scale (Costa & McCrae, 1992) were recruited from a larger pool of undergraduate students. Participants, who had been outfitted with an ambulatory blood pressure/heart rate monitor, were exposed to 5 laboratory stressors and 7 field stressors during a 6-hour protocol. Results indicated that individuals scoring high in neuroticism showed blood pressure reactivity to laboratory and field stressors that was comparable to that of persons low in neuroticism. Aggregrating responses across stressors, there was evidence of exaggerated heart rate responses. The results suggested that, although neuroticism is related to high levels of negative subjective experience, differences between persons scoring high versus low in neuroticism were not exhibited strongly at the cardiovascular level. The implications for stress, coping, and disease are discussed.     

Type D personality and cardiovascular reactivity to an ecologically valid multitasking stressor

Previous research investigating the influence of Type D personality on cardiovascular reactivity to stress in healthy young adults is somewhat mixed. The present study sought to investigate this question using an ecologically valid laboratory stressor. Beat-to-beat blood pressure and heart rate were measured in 77 healthy young adults during exposure to multitasking stress. Mood and background stress were both associated with Type D personality when Type D was conceptualised as a dimensional construct, with less robust findings observed using the traditional dichotomous typological approach. However, the continuous Type D construct added limited predictive value of the self-report measures above that of its constituent components, negative affectivity (NA) and social inhibition (SI). Further, an inverse relationship between the continuous Type D construct and blood pressure reactivity to multitasking stress was observed. In summary, our findings suggest that Type D personality is predictive of blunted cardiovascular reactivity to stress in healthy individuals when Type D is considered as a dimensional construct and the independent influence of NA and SI is controlled for. Further, our findings suggest that Type D does not predict additional variance in mood and background stress above that of NA and SI when these constituent factors are considered independently.     

Chronic psychosocial factors and acute physiological responses to laboratory-induced stress in healthy populations: a quantitative review of 30 years of investigations

This meta-analysis included 729 studies from 161 articles investigating how acute stress responsivity (including stress reactivity and recovery of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal [HPA] axis, autonomic, and cardiovascular systems) changes with various chronic psychosocial exposures (job stress; general life stress; depression or hopelessness; anxiety, neuroticism, or negative affect; hostility, aggression, or Type-A behavior; fatigue, burnout, or exhaustion; positive psychological states or traits) in healthy populations. In either the overall meta-analysis or the methodologically strong subanalysis, positive psychological states or traits were associated with reduced HPA reactivity. Hostility, aggression, or Type-A behavior was associated with increased cardiovascular (heart rate or blood pressure) reactivity, whereas anxiety, neuroticism, or negative affect was associated with decreased cardiovascular reactivity. General life stress and anxiety, neuroticism, or negative affect were associated with poorer cardiovascular recovery. However, regarding the sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system, there were no associations between the chronic psychosocial factors and stress reactivity or recovery. The results largely reflect an integrated stress response pattern of hypo- or hyperactivity depending on the specific nature of the psychosocial background.     

Loneliness, social support and cardiovascular reactivity to laboratory stress

Self-reported or explicit loneliness and social support have been inconsistently associated with cardiovascular reactivity (CVR) to stress. The present study aimed to adapt an implicit measure of loneliness, and use it alongside the measures of explicit loneliness and social support, to investigate their correlations with CVR to laboratory stress. Twenty-five female volunteers aged between 18 and 39 years completed self-reported measures of loneliness and social support, and an Implicit Association Test (IAT) of loneliness. The systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and heart rate (HR) reactivity indices were measured in response to psychosocial stress induced in the laboratory. Functional support indices of social support were significantly correlated with CVR reactivity to stress. Interestingly, implicit, but not explicit, loneliness was significantly correlated with DBP reactivity after one of the stressors. No associations were found between structural support and CVR indices. Results are discussed in terms of validity of implicit versus explicit measures and possible factors that affect physiological outcomes.