Effect of person and environment on heart rates in two strains of pointer dogs

Several recent studies have shown that there is a general and marked canine cardiac response to humans and to petting from humans. Additional investigations have suggested that one of the major determinants of such responding is genetic. Some studies have indicated that such a response does not occur in nervous, short-haired pointer dogs. Evidence presented in this study indicates that a heart rate response to person and petting does occur in both the nervous as well as the normal pointer dog, but only when the animal is unrestrained. When placed in a restraining harness, only normal dogs showed a heart rate response to person and the characteristic bradycardia upon petting. Moreover, in this and two other separate experiments in which tones (CS’s) were given, it was observed in both normal and nervous strains that mean baseline heart rates were as much as 40 beats per minute lower in the restrained situation than in the unrestrained situation. These experiments measured retention of cardiac response to aversive conditional signals, since most dogs (9 of 12) had received both tones and shock in a bar jumping-shock avoidance experiment one year previously. However, heart rates varied inconsistently in both magnitude and direction of change upon CS showing little or no retention. These findings clarify ambiguity in previous reports and again show that the restraining conditions in an experiment can constitute a serious stress for the animal and be a major factor in the results.     

Behavioral comparisons of nervous,stable, and crossbred pointers at ages 2, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months

To clarify some effects of inheritance on abnormal behavior we have maintained by line breeding and selective matingnervous (E) andstable (A) strains within the pointer breed of dogs. We now have comparable measures on behavioral tests of brief activity, startle reactions to a 122-decibel hom, and reactions to humans (Effect of Person) at ages 2, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months, for the two strains as well as for 26 crossbred offspring. In spite of the small crossbred (AE) sample size and limitations of a general nature, the offspring performances are surprisingly like the nervous side of their ancestry, suggesting dominant inheritance.     

Schizokinesis: Fragmentation of performance in two strains of pointer dogs

During the behavior shaping toward bar jumping to avoid shock at the termination of a tone, ten genetically nervous (“E”) and ten stable (“A”) dogs showed different performances in the acquisition of the adaptive motor response. When tested two months later and with concurrent monitoring of their electrocardiograms, these animals also showed differences in (1) baseline heart rate, (2) direction and degree of heart rate change to the conditioned tone stimulus (more often deceleration in the E dogs), and (3) response to the unconditioned shock stimulus. After having performed in an almost satisfactory manner for a few trials, thenervous animals often would suddenly freeze in rigid postures. These animals could frequently be made to emit the adaptive behavior by “breaking the frozen posture” through pushing, jumping, or pulling manipulation. Sometimes a forced righting reflex dramatically encouraged an integrated performance of varying duration. Thestable strain of dogs showed little or none of the rigidity and usually learned the smooth adaptive response. The stable A dogs showed retention of the cardiac Cr, but not of the motor Cr (which they re-formed after one or two reenforcements); the nervous E dogs also retained the cardiac Cr, but persisted in the maladaptive motor performance. The fragmented disorganized behavior in acquiring the adaptive motor act and thedifferential retention of the autonomic and motor responses are considered examples ofschizokinesis as conceptualized by Gantt. This schism is seen in clearer form in behavioral acquisition than in the usual frequency measure of the well-practiced act.     

Assessment of pointer dog behavior

Studies of behavioral traits of the “Arkansas Line of nervous pointer dogs” are well documented (Murphreeet al., 1969). Demonstrations of drug effects on these traits, as measured on the standardized behavior test and expressed as “Morbidity Score,” have been disappointing, despite other evidence of effectiveness of drug treatments such as modification of operant performance (Murphreeet al. 1974c). A simple reproducible test with high interrater reliability is presented here. Subjects were nine nervous dogs that received placebo, pimozide, and chlordiazepoxide in a double-blind crossover design. Both drugs significantly attenuated “human avoidance,” a nervous trait. Placebo had no effect. The chlordiazepoxide effect was maximal on the first day of administration, returning to baseline three to four days after the last dose. The pimozide maximal effect was on day 4, with return to baseline six to nine days after the last dose. In addition to the aberrant behavior of the nervous pointer, hyperresponsiveness to dopaminergic stimulation and increased levels of L-DOPA in the cisternal spinal fluid were observed.     

Characteristics of Schizogenic Families During a Joint Story-Telling Task

For a joint family story-telling task, families with a schizophrenic offspring were compared to normal families on the completeness and clarity of the final composite stories and on their interactional behavior. The composite stories from schizogenic families were more “vague and confused”, fragmented, and less complete as to the five components required to satisfy the task instructions. Schizogenic families displayed more conflict, failure, and confusion during the interactional task than control families, and, fathers and mothers of schizophrenic offspring displayed more “anxiety and tension”, “depressive mood”, “evasiveness” and “lack of interest” than fathers and mothers of normal families. Mothers of schizophrenic offspring were also described as more “hostile” than control mothers. Comparing schizogenic families from which the patient was absent during the task with schizogenic families with the patient present, and with control families, indicated that the central findings were not attributable to the immediate presence and participation of the schizophrenic member.     

The rehabilitation of genetically nervous dogs

Aware that intensive efforts to rehabilitate half of split litters from a nervous strain of Pointers through daily human contact have been unsuccessful, the authors designed this study to determine if a radically different approach utilizing the natural interest for birds and hunting which most Pointers possess would be a bridge to normalcy so that dogs genetically prone to nervous behavior could be rehabilitated. Five nervous and three normal dogs approaching young adulthood were gradually desensitized to open areas, live quail, gun reports and humans—all of which usually produce catatonic freezing, hyper-startle and strong avoidance behavior in the nervous animals. Through a “naturalistic” approach in the framework of the Pointers’ non-laboratory ecological niche using graduated techniques, reciprocally competitive responses and social facilitation, which are described, all the nervous dogs that showed an original “interest” for the qua.l were trained as successful hunted dogs, not obviously different in final performance from their normal kennel mates. Although the nervous dogs overcame their freezing, hyper-startle and human aversion while hunting, generalization did not extend sufficiently to normalize standard behavior test scores obtained under laboratory conditions. These remained at their prerehabilitation level, raising the question of the adequacy of the behavioi tests conducted in a laboratory environment. This appears to be related to the limitations often seen in psychotherapeutic efforts.     

Crossbreeding and special handling of genetically nervous dogs

In studies of a healthy (A) and a nervous (E) genetic strain of pointer dogs, two techniques were utilized to determine environmental and hereditary influences. These were (1) reciprocal crossbreeding to females from each strain, and (2) split litters with special handling and human attention to one-half of each litter of nervous strain origin from birth through age six months. It is not possible to attribute the nervous behavior to an environmental mother effect since crossbred AE and EA offspring were highly similar on behavior tests of brief exploratory activity, rigid posturing to a loud noise and human avoidance behavior. Furthermore, special handling had almost no success in normalizing the responses of the nervous dogs in the behavior tests or in heart rate response to Effect-of-Person procedures. The results show that the biologic origin of the dogs is the most likely source of the nervousness; this has placed severe limits thus far on attempts to attenuate the condition.     

Amphetamine increases intertrial but not conditional instrumental responding in the cortico-basomedial amygdalar dogs

The effect of partial cortico-basomedial amygdaloid lesions on dogs’ social behavior was investigated. The lesions did not affect the conditional instrumental responding (CRs) reinforced by petting or the dogs’ need for petting (US). The lesions increased the number of intertrial responses (ITRs) in all dogs. Subsequently the effect of low amphetamine doses (0.5 mg/l kg) administered intramuscularly to the amygdalar animals on the same behavioral parameters of the social behavior was examined. Amphetamine did not affect CRs but dramatically increased the ITRs and dogs’ need for petting. These findings suggest that the cortico-basomedial amygdaloid region may be involved in the cortical inhibitory mechanisms that are indispensable for promoting behavioral acts according to their usefulness and the situational context.     

Operant performance patterns of normal and nervous water-deprived dogs

Previous studies have shown that most food-deprived genetically nervous pointer dogs fail to learn a bar-pressing response for food reward and those which do learn are erratic in bar pressing compared to genetically normal pointer dogs which usually learn rapidly and perform well. Benzodiazepine drugs facilitate learning and performance of the responses in nervous dogs. The present study aimed at finding whether a stronger drive producing state, such as water deprivation, would facilitate learning and performance in even severely nervous dogs. Eight normal line and 7 nervous line dogs successfully learned to perform well a paddle-pressing response which activates a valve releasing water into a drinking pan. One disturbed dog of each line did not learn successfully. Behavior shaping was about as easy and as rapid in nervous line dogs as in normals. Nervous line dogs tended to be as consistent in responding. However, response rates of nervous line dogs averaged about two-thirds those of normal line dogs, the slowed rate of responses being taken up mostly in excessive, rather stereotyped, licking of the water pan. Response rates correlated well with degree of nervousness as measured on independent well standardized behavior tests. This behavior seems to add another dimension to the characterization of the nervousness of these “spooky” pointer dogs.     

Immobility reactions: A modified classification

This theoretical paper sets the stage for subsequent experimental reports on mobility and immobility in the Arkansas Line of Nervous Pointer dogs as contrasted with kennel mates of the normal line. Exactly opposite to the normal animals, the nervous dogs show marked inhibition of heart rate and musculoskeletal responses to man, including reduced ambulation and durable immobility following inversion and brief manual restraint in an open sling. The sling immobility of the nervous dogs (which may not differ basically from their freezing in upright position) might be designated as “tonic immobility” (TI). We hypothesize that such immobility, common in laboratory and natural conditions in many species, should be divided into two classes: hypotonic (cataleptic) and hypertonic (catatonic). We provide examples of such behaviors, particularly in man and dog, and cursorily review TI studies of other species. Neurophysiologic and neurochemical studies which bear on possible immobility mechanisms are briefly noted. We suggest that inconsistencies in reported concommitants of TI might result from failure to discriminate between types of behavioral responses.     

The history of a catatonic dog

This article is a condensed life-history of a dog (“V3”) born and reared in the Pavlovian Laboratory and studied until his death in 1961. A detailed study was made of his pathologic development, his relations to people, and the effects of drugs. Measurements recorded were heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, 24-hour activity, sexual reflexes, general behavior. Although early experiments were done chiefly for recording and were not considered noxious or traumatic, this dog’s general development and symptoms seem to have been “constitutionally” rather than environmentally determined. His external behavior was strikingly similar to that of a catatonic patient-flexibilitas cerea, general immobility. Of particular interest was the “Effect of Person”: in the presence of all humans who confronted him he showed catatonic postures, cardiovascular disorders (tachycardia up to 200 beats/min., bradycardia to 12 beats/min., drop of blood pressure from 150 to 75 mm Hg, arrest of heart-beat for as long as 8 seconds), moribund poses. His response to drugs illustrated the specificity to a definite “constitutional type”: sexual activity markedly increased by alcohol and rarely present except after administration of alcohol; no improvement after administration of tranquilizers, except alcohol and meprobamate, which made him act like a normal dog in behavior and in relations to people. His symptoms and reactions to both people and drugs were generally opposite to those of another dog, “Nick”, studied over his life span: Nick showed excessive activity in physiologic systems; hyperactivity (running); generally, improvement through “Effect of Person”; sexual inhibition with alcohol. Observations of the two dogs suggest that symptoms as well as reactions to drugs are the result of the “type” rather than the procedure used, that perhaps psychopathologic symptoms are due more to inborn constitution than to “conflict” (“collision”) between excitation and inhibition, and that neurotic or psychotic symptoms may not interfere with longevity-Nick lived to be 14 years old and died fighting; V3, who also spent most of his life in the laboratory, died at the age of 14.     

人情与公正的抉择:社会距离对第三方干预的影响

第三方干预(third-party intervention)是一种重要的利他行为,它包括惩罚和补偿两种措施。本研究结合情境性问卷与实验法,采用修改后的独裁者博弈范式(Dictator Game,DG),让被试作为第三方对朋友或者陌生人的不公平行为进行干预,考察社会距离对第三方干预的影响。研究发现:(1)对于朋友提出的不公平方案,个体对其的惩罚轻于陌生人,而对第二方(无权者)的补偿没有显著差异。(2)个体对朋友的不公平提议的公平性判断高于陌生人,但提议引发的情绪体验没有显著差异。上述结果表明,社会距离可能通过影响个体对不公平行为的公平感知,进而影响其第三方干预行为。     

Mothers who are securely attached in pregnancy show more attuned infant mirroring 7 months postpartum

This study contrasted two forms of mother–infant mirroring: the mother's imitation of the infant's facial, gestural, or vocal behavior (i.e., “direct mirroring”) and the mother's ostensive verbalization of the infant's internal state, marked as distinct from the infant's own experience (i.e., “intention mirroring”). Fifty mothers completed the Adult Attachment Interview (Dynamic Maturational Model) during the third trimester of pregnancy. Mothers returned with their infants 7 months postpartum and completed a modified still-face procedure. While direct mirroring did not distinguish between secure and insecure/dismissing mothers, secure mothers were observed to engage in intention mirroring more than twice as frequently as did insecure/dismissing mothers. Infants of the two mother groups also demonstrated differences, with infants of secure mothers directing their attention toward their mothers at a higher frequency than did infants of insecure/dismissing mothers. The findings underscore marked and ostensive verbalization as a distinguishing feature of secure mothers’ well-attuned, affect-mirroring communication with their infants.     

The effect of Person on cardiac and motor responsivity to shock in dogs

Interaction between effect of social stimulus (Person) and a faradic shock on heart rate and motor response (leg flexion) in four dogs was observed and recorded. The trials during which the shock and petting were presented simultaneously showed a significant suppression of heart rate increase to shock when compared to the shock alone trials. The lack of this suppression effect in the motor response to the shock is discussed in relation to the concept of schizokinesis. The importance of controlling prior experience of subjects is also discussed.     

权力不稳定性对权力效应的逆转作用

摘 要 基于权力的趋近-抑制理论，本研究探讨权力不稳定性对权力效应产生逆转作用以及权力动机对这一逆转作用的影响。实验采用角色扮演法和真实任务角色来操纵被试的权力水平和权力不稳定性，以赌博任务中的冒险行为和金钱分配任务中的趋利行为来测量被试的权力趋近/抑制效应。结果发现：权力稳定条件下，高权力被试比低权力被试表现出更多的冒险行为和趋利行为；权力不稳定条件下则相反，低权力被试比高权力被试表现出更多的冒险行为和趋利行为。权力不稳定条件下高权力动机的高权力者相比低权力动机的高权力者倾向给自己分配更少的金额数，表现出更为明显的抑制倾向；而高权力动机的低权力者相比低权力动机的低权力者倾向于提出更高要求的金额数，表现出更为明显的趋近倾向。该研究证实了权力不稳定性对权力效应的逆转作用，而权力动机对这一逆转作用起到增强趋势。     

Infants of depressed mothers show less “depressed” behavior with their nursery teachers

This study investigated whether infants' “depressed” behavior (i.e., less positive affect and lower activity levels) noted during their interactions with their depressed mothers generalized to their interactions with their nondepressed nursery teachers. Field et al. (1988) reported that infants of depressed mothers also show “depressed behavior” when interacting with nondepressed female adults, suggesting that the infants develop a generalized “depressed mood style” of interaction. However, in that study the adults were also strangers to the infants, confounding the results. In the present study, eighteen 3-month-old infants interacted with their depressed mothers and also with their nondepressed familiar teachers in 3-minute episodes. The infants' behavior ratings improved when they interacted with their familiar teachers compared to their interactions with their mothers. The infants' low activity levels and negative affect were specific to their interactions with their depressed mothers. Thus, the data suggest that the infants respond differentially to depressed and nondepressed adults who are familiar.     

A Mother-Instruction Program: Analysis of Intervention Procedures

A variety of techniques have been used to train parents as therapists, and while many research efforts have produced carefully controlled studies documenting behavior change, few have analyzed in detail the procedures used to produce the change. As part of a larger research program aimed at teaching mothers to alter their interaction with their children, detailed analysis of the intervention procedures was carried out. These procedures consisted of instructions given to the mothers via a “bug-in-the-ear” device while they were actively engaged in interaction with their children. Instructions were categorized according to two principles: (a) the type of statements made to mothers; and (b) the kinds of behaviors we were encouraging mothers to exhibit. Results show that the amount of interpersonal behavior change was not related to intervention statements. Intervention statements were related to specific problem behaviors indicated by mothers at inital contact, and to the age of the child. Behavior change tended to be related to the number of problem behaviors indicated by mothers but not to any one specific behavior problem. Several issues raised by this study are discussed.     

Infants of “depressed” mothers interact better with their nondepressed fathers

To determine whether infants of “depressed” mothers interact better with their nondepressed fathers, twenty-six 3- to 6-month-old infants were videotaped during face-to-face interactions with their parents. The “depressed” mother group consisted of twelve 3- to 6-month-old infants and their “depressed” mothers and nondepressed fathers. The control group was composed of 14 nondepressed mothers and nondepressed fathers and their 3- to 6-month-old infants. In the “depressed” mother group, the nondepressed fathers received better interaction ratings than the “depressed” mothers. In turn, the infants received better interaction ratings when they interacted with their nondepressed fathers than with their “depressed” mothers. In contrast, nondepressed fathers and mothers and their infants in the control group did not differ on any of their interaction ratings. These findings suggest that infants' difficult interaction behaviors noted during interactions with their “depressed” mothers may not extend to their nondepressed fathers. The data are discussed with respect to the notion that nondepressed fathers may “buffer” the effects of maternal depression on infant interaction behavior.