Boredom,motivation, and perceptions of pain: Mechanisms to explain the effects of self-control exertion on subsequent physical performance

ObjectivesPrior self-control exertion has been shown to have a detrimental effect on subsequent physical performance. However, some potential underpinning mechanisms of the effect have yet to be examined. The present study explored whether exerting self-control reduces subsequent physical performance; and also examines the role of boredom, motivation, perceptions of pain, and sustained attention as mechanisms to explain these performance effects.MethodsIn a within-subjects order-balanced crossover design, 63 participants completed a self-control exertion task (incongruent Stroop) and non-self-control exertion task (congruent Stroop) for 4 min. Immediately after, participants completed a wall-sit task until volitional exhaustion. Task-specific boredom was measured following the Stroop task and following the wall-sit task. Participants’ perceptions of pain and motivation were measured every 30 s during the wall sit task. Upon completion of the wall-sit, participants completed a test of sustained attention.ResultsFollowing the self-control exertion task, participant’s wall-sit performance time was reduced (136 ± 62 s), compared to when they completed the non-self-control exertion task (144 ± 57 s, p = 0.05, d = 0.14). Participant’s task related boredom was significantly higher during the non-self-control exertion task (4.30 ± 1.23), compared to the self-control exertion task (3.82 ± 1.22) (p < 0.001, d = 0.39); but boredom was not different during the wall-sit task (p = 0.79). Prior self-control exertion also led to increased overall perceptions of pain (p = 0.02) and reduced overall (p = 0.01) and initial (p = 0.02) motivation during the wall-sit task. However, no differences in initial perceptions of pain (p = 0.16) or sustained attention (response time, p = 0.99; response accuracy, p = 0.78) were observed. Additional within-subjects mediation analysis revealed that differences in wall-sit performance time could not be explained by differences in task related boredom during the Stroop task, overall perceptions of pain, or overall and initial motivation (all p > 0.05).ConclusionsThe prior exertion of self-control resulted in a decrement in subsequent physical performance. Furthermore, individuals’ perceptions of task related boredom were higher during the non-self-control exertion (congruent Stroop) task, whilst overall perceptions of pain were higher, and initial and overall motivation were lower, following the self-control exertion (incongruent Stroop) task. However, mediation analysis revealed that these mechanisms did not explain the difference in wall sit performance time between the conditions.     

Self-control exertion and caffeine mouth rinsing: Effects on cycling time-trial performance

ObjectivesThe exertion of self-control has been associated with impaired performance on subsequent physical tasks also requiring self-control. However, the effect in well-trained individuals, and of nutritional intervention strategies to reduce the impact of self-control exertion are unknown. This study, therefore, explored the effect of self-control exertion on endurance performance, and pacing strategies, in well-trained individuals. A further aim was to examine the potential for a caffeine mouth rinse to attenuate any decrements in performance due to self-control exertion.MethodFollowing familiarization, fifteen trained male cyclists completed four simulated 10 km cycling time-trials on a cycle ergometer. Prior to each time-trial, participants completed a congruent Stroop task, or an incongruent Stroop task, to manipulate self-control. They also received either a caffeine (containing 40 mg of dissolved caffeine) or placebo mouth-rinse prior to, and every 2 km during, the cycling time-trial. The participants' performance time, subjective measures (perceived pain, motivation, task importance, and RPE), heart rate, and blood lactate concentration were recorded throughout the time-trials. Data were analysed using three-way (self-control*caffeine*split time) repeated measures ANOVA.ResultsThere was no effect of self-control or caffeine on overall 10 km performance time (all p > 0.05). However, following self-control exertion, split time was significantly slower at 3 km (p = 0.031) and 5 km (p = 0.034), and tended to be slower at 1 km (p = 0.088) and 7 km (p = 0.078). There was no effect of the caffeine mouth rinse, nor did this interact with self-control, to affect split times (all p > 0.05). Prior self-control exertion and a caffeine mouth rinse did not influence perceptions of pain, motivation, and task importance in well-trained individuals (all p > 0.05).ConclusionsFindings suggest that prior self-control exertion affects self-regulatory pacing strategies during the first 7 km of a 10 km cycling time-trial, in well-trained individuals. However, caffeine mouth rinsing does not attenuate the effects of self-control exertion on subsequent endurance performance.     

休息对自我损耗的补偿作用

两个实验旨在检验自我损耗效应并探讨休息对自我损耗的补偿作用。在实验1中,损耗组被试通过观看注意控制视频诱发自我控制资源的损耗,然后完成Stroop任务。实验2与实验1的不同之处在于,诱发自我损耗后进行不同时间（5分钟、10分钟）的休息处理。两个实验结果发现：（1）注意控制视频成功诱发了自我损耗效应;（2）休息对自我损耗具有补偿作用;（3）在损耗状态下,休息5分钟即对自我控制资源具有补偿作用。研究结果证实了自我损耗的资源枯竭观。     

Prior self-control exertion and perceptions of pain during a physically demanding task

ObjectivesExertion of self-control has been associated with impaired performance on subsequent physical tasks also requiring self-control, but it remains unknown why this occurs. This study, therefore, explored whether a) prior self-control exertion reduces subsequent persistence on a physically demanding task, and b) whether any observed performance decrements could be explained by changes in perceptions of pain.MethodIn a within-subject design, sixty-three individuals completed an easy (congruent) Stroop task or a difficult (incongruent) Stroop task that required self-control. Participants were then required to remain in a physically demanding posture (i.e., a ‘wall-sit’) until voluntary exhaustion and their perception of pain was recorded during the task.ResultsWhen participants completed the difficult Stroop task, they quit the wall-sit sooner. This decrement in performance was explained by greater perceptions of pain at the beginning of the wall-sit.ConclusionsPerceptions of pain may, therefore, be an important attentional mechanism explaining why self-control use interferes with subsequent persistence during physically effortful tasks.     

Do domestic dogs show any evidence of being able to count?

Numerical competence has been demonstrated in a wide range of animal species. The level of numerical abilities shown ranges from simple relative numerousness judgements to true counting. In this study we used the preferential looking technique to test whether 11 pet dogs could count. The dogs were presented with three simple calculations: "1+1=2"; "1+1=1"; and "1+1=3". These calculations were performed by presenting the dogs with treats that were placed behind a screen that allowed manipulation of the outcome of the calculation. When the dogs expected the outcome they spent the same amount of time looking at the result of the calculation as they did on the initial presentation. However, when the result was unexpected dogs spent significantly longer looking at the outcome of the calculation. The results suggest that the dogs were anticipating the outcome of the calculations they observed, thus suggesting that dogs may have a rudimentary ability to count. Electronic Publication     

Self-control exertion and glucose supplementation prior to endurance performance

ObjectivesCompletion of a task requiring self-control may negatively impact on subsequent self-regulatory efforts. This study explored a) whether this effect occurs during a well-practiced endurance task, b) the potential for glucose supplementation to moderate this effect, and c) whether this effect differed over time.MethodFourteen trained cyclists completed four simulated 16 km time trials on an electromagnetically braked cycle ergometer. Prior to each time trial, participants completed a congruent Stroop task or an incongruent Stroop task that required self-control. They also received either a glucose-based drink or placebo. Participants' performance time and heart rate were recorded throughout the time trials.ResultsMultilevel growth curve analysis revealed a significant three-way interaction between self-control, glucose, and time (b = −0.91; p = 0.02). When participants did not exert self-control (congruent Stroop) or consume glucose (placebo drink) they were slowest during the early stages of the time trial but quickest over the full distance. No differences were found in heart rate across the four conditions.ConclusionsFindings suggest that pacing may explain why self-control exertion interferes with endurance performance. Moreover, the debate revolving around depletion of self-control must consider that any observed effects may be dependent on the timing of performance inspection.     

Running on empty: neural signals for self-control failure

Past research shows that self-control is limited and becomes depleted after initial exertions. This study examined the neural processes underlying self-control failure by testing whether controlled, effortful behavior impairs subsequent attempts at control by depleting the neural system associated with conflict monitoring. Subjects either watched an emotional movie normally or tried to suppress their emotions while watching the movie; they then completed an ostensibly unrelated Stroop task while electroencephalographic activity was recorded. The error-related negativity (ERN)--a waveform associated with activity in the anterior cingulate--was measured to determine whether prior regulatory exertion constrained the conflict-monitoring system. Compared with subjects in the control condition, those who suppressed their emotions performed worse on the Stroop task, and this deficit was mediated by weaker ERN signals. These results offer a neural account for the self-regulatory-strength model and demonstrate the utility of the social neuroscience approach.     

Triggering Conservation of the Self's Regulatory Resources

Three experiments investigated people's motivation to conserve the self's limited regulatory resource after it is depleted by initial self-control exertion. Across the experiments, the results supported the idea of a conservation process. In Experiment 1, depleted participants' subsequent performance decreased when expecting to engage in a future self-regulation task compared to engaging in no task at all. In Experiments 2 and 3 we employed the “end-effect” pattern found in past vigilance research to further examine conservation. In Experiment 2, depleted and nondepleted participants who knew the study ran for 30 min performed similarly following 20 min of self-regulation, whereas 3 min or 10 min of self-regulation produced typical depletion effects. Likewise, the findings from Experiment 3 revealed this same conservation pattern using a shortened 6-min initial task. Specifically, when depleted participants believed the study was finished their task performance was better compared to those who believed the study would run for another 20 min. In short, the current findings support the idea of conservation—decrements in self-regulatory performance may represent an adaptive inclination to conserve the self's diminished resources rather than an inability to wield further self-control.     

自我损耗促进冒险行为

基于自我控制资源模型,本研究探讨了自我损耗对冒险行为的影响以及生理能量补充在其中的缓解作用。实验1和实验2分别通过“Stroop”和“非利手写作”任务操纵被试的自我损耗,两个实验均用气球模拟风险决策任务考察被试的冒险行为,并且通过摄入含有或不含有葡萄糖的柠檬水来操纵生理能量水平。结果发现,在排除无关变量后,高损耗者比低损耗者尽可能多地对气球进行充气以寻求奖赏(实验1和实验2),但饮用含葡萄糖的柠檬水能够有效降低这种反应(实验2)。该研究证实了自我损耗促进冒险行为,补充生理能量能有效缓解该效应。     

The Current State of Genetic Counseling Before and After Amniocentesis for Fetal Karyotyping in Japan: A Survey of Obstetric Hospital Clients of a Prenatal Testing Laboratory

Pregnant women undergoing prenatal genetic testing should receive genetic counseling so they can make informed decisions. We examined the current state of providing genetic counseling in Japan to pregnant women before they elected amniocentesis for prenatal diagnosis of chromosome abnormalities and after test results were completed, and explored the opportunity for expanding access to certified genetic counselors (CGC) at clinical practices offering amniocentesis. An anonymous survey was mailed to the 298 hospitals that referred amniotic fluid specimens to LabCorp Japan in 2009. Most genetic counseling was provided by the obstetrician alone; 73.8 % (76/103) of pre-amniocentesis, 82.5 % (85/103) if normal results, and 49.4 % (44/89) if abnormal results. Respondents spent limited time in genetic counseling; 57.3 % spent <10 min for pre-amniocentesis, 88.3 % spent <10 min for normal results, and 54.0 % spent <20 min for abnormal results. While 45.8 % indicated that CGC do not have an essential role in clinical practice, responses that supported employment of CGC were more likely to come from hospitals that submitted more than ten specimens annually (p?<?0.0001), university hospitals (p?<?0.0001), and MD geneticists (p?=?0.020). Currently, there is limited genetic counseling available in Japan. This indicates there are opportunities for the employment of CGC to improve the quality of genetic counseling.     

自我损耗促进冲动决策：来自行为和ERPs的证据

该研究以自我控制资源模型为理论框架, 采用行为实验和ERPs技术考察自我损耗对冲动决策的影响。实验1采用Stroop任务操纵自我控制资源并采用延迟折扣任务考察被试的决策冲动性, 实验2采用同样的实验任务并同时采用ERPs技术记录高、低自我损耗者在随后决策任务中的脑电成分。行为结果发现, 在控制心境、特质自我控制水平以及风险偏好等无关变量后, 高损耗者比低损耗者在延迟折扣任务上的折扣程度更大。ERPs结果发现, 不论延迟金额大小, 高损耗者在左侧额区诱发的N1波幅显著小于低损耗者; 高损耗者在右半球诱发的P2波幅显著大于低损耗者。研究表明, 自我损耗抑制决策早期左侧额区的激活水平, 个体因而无法识别冲突以及抵制即时满足的诱惑, 这促使他们采用直觉启发式进行决策, 最终导致冲动决策的产生。     

Does the experience of presence restore self-control?

A wide range of research suggests that the exertion of self-control is a limited resource or constrained by a motivational shift. Less attention, however, has been given to the question how self-control capacity can be restored. This study examined whether this restoration can be achieved by “presence,” the perceptual illusion of non-mediation. We suggest that the adoption of the mediated reference systems creates a “holiday from self” and restores self-control capacity. Depleted participants who saw an immersive video clip performed better in a subsequent self-control task than participants who saw a non-immersive video clip or were in a waiting group. But the concrete mechanism remains open: Self reported presence did not serve as a mediator.     

Mindfulness meditation counteracts self-control depletion

Mindfulness meditation describes a set of different mental techniques to train attention and awareness. Trait mindfulness and extended mindfulness interventions can benefit self-control. The present study investigated the short-term consequences of mindfulness meditation under conditions of limited self-control resources. Specifically, we hypothesized that a brief period of mindfulness meditation would counteract the deleterious effect that the exertion of self-control has on subsequent self-control performance. Participants who had been depleted of self-control resources by an emotion suppression task showed decrements in self-control performance as compared to participants who had not suppressed emotions. However, participants who had meditated after emotion suppression performed equally well on the subsequent self-control task as participants who had not exerted self-control previously. This finding suggests that a brief period of mindfulness meditation may serve as a quick and efficient strategy to foster self-control under conditions of low resources.     

Deferred imitation and declarative memory in domestic dogs

This study demonstrates for the first time deferred imitation of novel actions in dogs (Canis familiaris) with retention intervals of 1.5 min and memory of familiar actions with intervals ranging from 0.40 to 10 min. Eight dogs were trained using the ‘Do as I do’ method to match their own behaviour to actions displayed by a human demonstrator. They were then trained to wait for a short interval to elapse before they were allowed to show the previously demonstrated action. The dogs were then tested for memory of the demonstrated behaviour in various conditions, also with the so-called two-action procedure and in a control condition without demonstration. Dogs were typically able to reproduce familiar actions after intervals as long as 10 min, even if distracted by different activities during the retention interval and were able to match their behaviour to the demonstration of a novel action after a delay of 1 min. In the two-action procedure, dogs were typically able to imitate the novel demonstrated behaviour after retention intervals of 1.5 min. The ability to encode and recall an action after a delay implies that facilitative processes cannot exhaustively explain the observed behavioural similarity and that dogs’ imitative abilities are rather based on an enduring mental representation of the demonstration. Furthermore, the ability to imitate a novel action after a delay without previous practice suggests presence of declarative memory in dogs.     

Does the brain consume additional glucose during self-control tasks?

A currently popular model of self-control posits that the exertion of self-control relies on a resource, which is expended by acts of self-control, resulting in less of this resource being available for subsequent acts of self-control. Recently, glucose has been proposed as the resource in question. For this model to be correct, it must be the case that A) performing a self-control task reduces glucose levels relative to a control task and B) performing a self-control task reduces glucose relative to pre-task levels. Evidence from neurophysiology suggests that (A) is unlikely to be true, and the evidence surrounding (B) is mixed, and is unlikely to be true for subjects who have not recently fasted. From the standpoint of evolved function, glucose might better be thought of as an input to decision making systems rather than as a constraint on performance.     

The Strength Model of Self-Control

ABSTRACT— Self-control is a central function of the self and an important key to success in life. The exertion of self-control appears to depend on a limited resource. Just as a muscle gets tired from exertion, acts of self-control cause short-term impairments (ego depletion) in subsequent self-control, even on unrelated tasks. Research has supported the strength model in the domains of eating, drinking, spending, sexuality, intelligent thought, making choices, and interpersonal behavior. Motivational or framing factors can temporarily block the deleterious effects of being in a state of ego depletion. Blood glucose is an important component of the energy.     

Longitudinal improvement of self-regulation through practice: building self-control strength through repeated exercise.

This study examined the results of repeated exercises of self-control in relation to self-regulatory strength over time. A sample of 69 U.S. college students spent 2 weeks doing 1 of 3 self-control exercises: monitoring and improving posture, regulating mood, or monitoring and recording eating. Compared with a no-exercise control group, the participants who performed the self-control exercises showed significant improvement in self-regulatory capacity as measured by quitting faster on a hand-grip exercise task following a thought-suppression exercise.     

Skipping breakfast,sedentarism and overweight in children

To show by use of path analysis how in children of 9 and 10 years of age the known relationship between breakfast and high body mass index (BMI) is mediated by sedentary leisure time activities. A random sample of 291 9-year-old and 10-year-old school children from the Principality of Asturias (Spain) was taken. A transversal design was used, their weight and height were measured and an individual standardized interview was carried out in which they were asked about their breakfast habits and the time they spent each week on sedentary leisure activities. Using path analysis, a model was tested in which breakfast habits and leisure time were the independent variables and the BMI was the dependent variable. The results showed that there was an inverse correlation between number of breakfasts and BMI and a direct correlation between the time spent on sedentary leisure activities and BMI. Path analysis showed that the relationship between the frequency with which breakfast was eaten and BMI was mediated by the time spent on sedentary leisure activities. The above appears to confirm the direct role played by failing to have breakfast in the pandemic of obesity as this habit tends to increase children’s BMI. This relationship is, however, mediated by sedentary leisure. According to the data compiled, being overweight in children can only be prevented by modifying not just one of the habits that have been associated with it, but rather the whole group of habits as these appear to make up an obesogenic cluster in which sedentary leisure and not having breakfast are included.     

Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) flexibly adjust their human-directed behavior to the actions of their human partners in a problem situation

Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) have been shown to actively initiate triadic communicative interactions by looking at a human partner or by alternating their gaze between the human and an object when being faced with an out-of-reach reward or an unsolvable problem. It has hardly been investigated, however, whether dogs flexibly adjust their human-directed behavior to the actions of their partners, which indicate their willingness and abilities to help them when they are faced with a problem. Here, in two experiments, we confronted dogs—after initially allowing them to learn how to manipulate an apparatus—with two problem situations: with an empty apparatus and a blocked apparatus. In Experiment 1, we showed that dogs looked back at their owners more when the owners had previously encouraged them, independently from the problem they faced. In Experiment 2, we provided dogs with two experimenters and allowed them to learn through an initial phase that each of the experimenters could solve one of the two problems: the Filler re-baited the empty apparatus and the Helper unblocked the blocked apparatus. We found that dogs could learn to recognize the ability of the Filler and spent time close to her when the apparatus was empty. Independently from the problem, however, they always approached the Helper first. The results of the present study indicate that dogs may have a limited understanding of physical problems and how they can be solved by a human partner. Nevertheless, dogs are able to adjust their behavior to situation-specific characteristics of their human partner’s behavior.     

Repeated Self-Regulation and Asymmetric Hemispheric Activation

Numerous recent studies have investigated repeated self-regulation to uncover the processes involved in self-regulatory behavior over time. Results from most of these studies are consistent with a depletion process in which self-regulatory effectiveness declines over time due to resource depletion. The present research examined an additional factor that may also be involved in repeated self-regulatory exertion, namely, differential hemispheric activation. Five studies examined this issue, focusing on self-control tasks requiring avoidance or vigilance. Studies 1 to 3 indicated that these tasks resulted in greater relative right hemispheric activation. Studies 4 and 5 indicated that, consistent with this pattern of differential activation, initial vigilance self-control resulted in better subsequent performance on a spatial self-regulatory task but worse performance on a verbal self-regulatory task. These findings provide additional insight into the dynamics of self-regulatory behavior across tasks, suggesting the combination of tasks examined may influence the pattern of results obtained.