The nature and correlates of deterrents to leaving a relationship

The nature and correlates of perceived deterrents to leaving a relationship were examined in a sample of both partners (N= 314) from gay male, lesbian, and heterosexual couples. Partners rated the extent to which self‐identified features of their relationship were regarded as either attractions to the relationship or deterrents to ending that relationship. The deterrents identified included features that were also identified as attractions as well as unique features that functioned as barriers to leaving. Satisfaction with the relationship tended to be positively correlated with deterrents that were attractions but negatively correlated with deterrents that were barriers. Differences between gay male/lesbian partners and heterosexual partners were found in the kinds of deterrents identified but not in the link between deterrents and relationship satisfaction.     

Social interdependence in close relationships: The actor–partner‐interdependence–investment model (API‐IM)

This article introduces the actor–partner‐interdependence–investment model (API‐IM) that was developed to add a dyadic perspective to Rusbult's investment model. The API‐IM is based on interdependence theoretical assumptions and the actor–partner interdependence model. Two studies were conducted to investigate the reliability of the API‐IM. Relationship satisfaction, investment size, quality of alternatives, and relationship commitment were assessed at both partners of 77 (Study 1) and 162 (Study 2) married and unmarried heterosexual couples. Path analyses that applied a structural equation modeling framework revealed a dyadic model that significantly predicts women's and men's commitment by actor effects of satisfaction, investments, and alternatives, and partner effects of satisfaction. Actor and partner effects of satisfaction were significantly moderated by relationship duration and marital status. Marital status also significantly moderated the actor effect of alternatives. The API‐IM supports the concept of social interdependence in close relationships, and it is discussed as a sound dyadic extension of the investment model. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

What Do We Know About Gay and Lesbian Couples?

Abstract— Research on gay and lesbian couples is highlighted with regard to household labor, conflict, satisfaction, perceived social support, stability, and the variables that predict relationship quality. Relative to partners from married heterosexual couples, partners from gay and lesbian couples tend to assign household labor more fairly, resolve conflict more constructively, experience similar levels of satisfaction, and perceive less support from family members but more support from friends. The limited data available indicate that gay and lesbian couples may be less stable than married heterosexual couples. The factors that predict relationship quality tend to be the same for gay, lesbian, and heterosexual married couples. Overall, research paints a positive picture of gay and lesbian couples and indicates that they tend to be more similar to than different from heterosexual couples.     

Partner–objectification in romantic relationships: A dyadic approach

The present study investigated the relationship between the objectification of one's romantic partner (partner–objectification) and relationship quality using 221 heterosexual couples. Controlling for relevant covariates, actor–partner interdependence models revealed no partner effects but multiple actor effects. First, men who objectified their partners more had lower levels of relationship commitment and relationship satisfaction, and perceived higher quality alternatives to the relationship. Second, women who objectified their partners more had lower levels of relationship satisfaction themselves. Third, relationship duration marginally moderated the association between partner–objectification and relationship commitment, with partner–objectification negatively linked to one's own relationship commitment in relationships of shorter durations, but not when relationship durations were longer. Implications for an investment model and romantic relationship objectification are discussed.     

Subjective norms and the prediction of romantic relationship state and fate

This study examined whether subjective norms are associated with commitment to a romantic relationship and with remaining in that relationship over time. Subjective norms are defined in the context of relationships as the perceived normative beliefs of a social network member regarding a given relationship weighted by the motivation to comply with that network member. In a longitudinal study of college students involved in dating relationships, subjective norms were found to be a significant predictor of romantic relationship commitment level, alone and in multiple regression analyses including satisfaction level, quality of alternatives, and investment size. Longitudinal analyses indicated that commitment mediated the effect of subjective norms on remaining in the relationship approximately 8 months later. Finally, level of dependence on a romantic relationship moderated the predictive value of subjective norms, with lower relationship dependence yielding greatest predictive value for subjective norms.     

Assessing the health of a dyadic relationship in heterosexual and same‐sex partners

The purpose of this study was to assess characteristics of a measure of monitoring the health of a dyadic relationship based on data from self‐report surveys completed by both partners from dating heterosexual, married heterosexual, cohabiting gay male, and cohabiting lesbian couples from the United States (Ns = 127, 46, 81, and 224, respectively). Covariation among the measure’s 7 items conformed to 1 latent factor. Intraclass correlations between partners from the same couple were positive. Gender effects occurred only for married couples, with wives having higher scores than husbands. One’s own and one’s partner’s monitoring accounted for unique variance in one’s own commitment, even with controls for other variables. Monitoring buffered the negative effects of neuroticism on commitment.     

STAYING IN THE CLOSET VERSUS COMING OUT: RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN COMMUNICATION ABOUT SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND WORK ATTITUDES

The threat of job discrimination causes many gay men and lesbians to keep their sexual orientation secret at work. This study investigates the relationships between extent of communication about sexual orientation and critical work attitudes. We hypothesize that "closeted" gay workers will experience more negative work attitudes than will either "openly" gay or heterosexual workers. The sample consisted of 900 lesbian, gay, and heterosexual workers identified from the mailing list of a civil rights group focused on homosexual rights. The hypothesis is supported for affective organizational commitment, job satisfaction, belief in support of top management, role ambiguity, role conflict, and conflict between work and home issues, but not for continuance commitment. Although causal relationships are not specified, we conclude that work attitude levels of gay and lesbian workers are predicted in part by the amount of communication about their sexual orientation in which these workers engage.     

Relationship satisfaction and depressive symptoms in emerging adults: cross-sectional associations and moderating effects of relationship characteristics

Extending research that was based on married adults, we explored associations between romantic relationship satisfaction and depressive symptoms in a sample of 484 emerging adults (ages 18-25) in nonmarital dating relationships. In addition, we investigated whether the relationship characteristics of relationship length, interdependence (i.e., investment size and quality of alternatives) and commitment moderated these associations. Overall, there was a negative association between relationship quality and depressive symptoms that was stronger for emerging adult women than men, echoing findings from married adults. The extent to which relationship characteristics moderated this association generally differed by gender. For men, the negative association between satisfaction and depressive symptoms was moderate to strong in relationships of above-average interdependence, commitment, and length, but it was weak in shorter and less interdependent relationships and nonexistent in relatively uncommitted relationships. In contrast, for women, the association between relationship satisfaction and symptoms was moderate to strong at all levels of interdependence and commitment, although amplified at higher commitment levels. Interestingly, shorter relationship length was associated with a stronger association between satisfaction and depressive symptoms for women. In general, findings suggest the importance of romantic relationship quality to the emotional well being of emerging adults, particularly young women, and highlight gender differences in relationship processes during this life period.     

Adjustment to relationship dissolution in gay,lesbian, and heterosexual partners

Twenty-six gay, 24 lesbian, and 49 heterosexual (19 male and 30 female) individuals who were separated from their relationship partner for about 6 months provided reasons why their relationship ended and rated their current separation distress. Relative to partners in heterosexual couples, those in gay or lesbian couples did not differ in reasons for the separation or in level of separation distress. Aspects of relationship quality assessed shortly before the separation occurred did not predict later separation distress. However, individuals who indicated that problems with intimacy were the cause of the separation were unlikely to be distressed by the separation, whereas individuals who indicated that problems with communication were the cause of the separation were likely to be distressed by the separation. Separation distress was positively related to the severity of neurotic symptoms reported when the relationship was intact and was negatively related to the extent to which the separation was expected. It is concluded that separation distress is more strongly related to personal strategies for coping with stress than to relationship-related events leading to separation.     

Relationship quality of partners in heterosexual married, heterosexual cohabiting, and gay and lesbian relationships

The relationship quality of partners in 44 married, 35 heterosexual cohabiting, 50 gay, and 56 lesbian monogamous couples was studied. Each couple lived together and did not have children living with them. Relationship quality was dimensionalized as love for partner, liking of partner, and relationship satisfaction. Cohabiting partners had the lowest Love for Partner and Relationship Satisfaction scores. Differences were also found among partner types on: barriers to leaving the relationship, alternatives to the relationship, a belief that mindreading is expected in the relationship, masculinity, femininity, androgyny, dyadic attachment, shared decision making, and perceived social support from family. The four partner groups did not differ in psychological adjustment. For each type of partner, love for partner was related to many barriers to leaving the relationship and high dyadic attachment; liking of partner was related to few alternatives to the relationship, high dyadic attachment, and high shared decision making; and relationship satisfaction was related to many attractions, few alternatives, few beliefs regarding disagreement is destructive to the relationship, high dyadic attachment, and high shared decision making. Stepwise multiple regression procedures were used to identify the best set of predictors for each partner type. Results are discussed in the context of existing models of relationship quality.     

Attractions and constraints as determinants of relationship commitment: Longitudinal evidence from gay,lesbian, and heterosexual couples

The proposition that commitment to a relationship is uniquely determined by forces that draw one to the relationship (attractions) and forces that prevent one from leaving the relationship (constraints) was tested with five annual waves of longitudinal data from two samples: both partners from 155 married couples and both partners from 57 gay couples and 50 lesbian couples. Growth curve analyses that controlled for the interdependence of partners' scores indicated that, for both heterosexual and gay/lesbian couples, variability in one's own commitment was uniquely predicted by one's own attractions and one's own constraints, interactions involving one's own attractions and one's own constraints, and one's partner's attractions. It is concluded that attractions and constraints exert unique dynamic effects on maintaining a close relationship.     

Relationship Characteristics and Risk of HIV Infection: Rusbult's Investment Model and Sexual Risk Behavior of Gay Men in Steady Relationships1

This study examined the effects of relationship characteristics, as measured by Rusbult's (1980) investment model, on safer‐sex behavior between steady gay male partners. Analyses showed that low satisfaction with the relationship was associated with more risky unprotected anal intercourse (UAI). High commitment to the relationship was associated with more practice of negotiated safety (i.e., having safe UAI after both partners have tested negative for HIV and have reached sexual safety agreements). High relationship investment was associated with more risky UAI (borderline significant). We conclude that using relationship satisfaction, commitment, and investment as co‐determinants of sexual risk behavior could prove useful in the development of new HIV‐prevention strategies for gay men in relationships.     

Investigating the interface of the investment model and adult attachment theory

We examined whether the extent to which individuals accord importance to components of the investment model varies by attachment. In Study 1, rewards and costs in a hypothetical relationship were experimentally manipulated, and participants (single and dating undergraduates) reported perceptions of rewards, costs, and satisfaction. In Study 2, investments and alternative quality were manipulated, and participants reported perceptions of investments, alternatives, satisfaction, and commitment. Study 1 revealed that relative to others, individuals high in both anxiety and avoidance (i.e., fearful) accord less weight to rewards when determining satisfaction. Study 2 revealed that relative to others, individuals low in anxiety and high in avoidance (i.e., dismissing) accord more weight to investments and alternatives, and less weight to satisfaction when determining commitment. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Facial resemblances between heterosexual, gay, and lesbian couples

Researchers have noted a physical resemblance (homophily) between human sex partners. To date, these studies and their related interpretations have been based on heterosexual couples. The present study compared physical resemblances between gay, lesbian, and heterosexual couples, using 40 photographs of each from national newspapers, which were rated by 34 men and 56 women (M age = 53 yr., SD = 12.1). Half the photographs were of actual couples and half were randomly mixed within each group. Actual couples were rated as significantly more similar in appearance than random pairings of people. Ratings of similarity were significantly higher (indicating greater perceived homophily) for gay couples than heterosexual couples, while there was no statistically significant difference in similarity ratings between lesbian couples versus gay and heterosexual couples. The results were interpreted in terms of evolutionary and parental imprinting hypotheses.     

Friendship trumps ethnicity (but not sexual orientation): comfort and discomfort in inter-group interactions

An experience sampling study tested the degree to which interactions with out-group members evoked negative affect and behavioural inhibition after controlling for level of friendship between partners. When friendship level was statistically controlled, neither White nor Black participants reported feeling more discomfort interacting with ethnic out-group members compared to ethnic in-group members. When partners differed in sexual orientation, friendship level had a less palliating effect. Controlling for friendship, both gay and straight men - but not women - felt more behaviourally inhibited when interacting with someone who differed in sexual orientation, and heterosexual participants of both genders continued to report more negative affect with gay and lesbian interaction partners. However, gay and lesbian participants reported similar levels of negative affect interacting with in-group (homosexual) and out-group (heterosexual) members after friendship level was controlled. Results suggest that much of the discomfort observed in inter-ethnic interactions may be attributable to lower levels of friendship with out-group partners. The discomfort generated by differences in sexual orientation, however, remains a more stubborn barrier to comfortable inter-group interactions.     

Attachment and the investment model: Predictors of relationship commitment,maintenance, and persistence

This research examines adult attachment and the investment model. Study 1 tests anxiety and avoidance predicting romantic relationship commitment, mediated by satisfaction, alternatives, and investments. Additional studies added outcomes of relationship maintenance (Study 2) and persistence (Study 3). In all 3 studies, satisfaction, alternatives, and investments mediated the associations between anxiety and avoidance and relationship commitment. A direct effect of avoidance on commitment remained. The investment model variables mediated the effect of anxiety and avoidance on accommodation and willingness to sacrifice (Study 2) and relationship persistence (Study 3). Direct effects remained for avoidance on accommodation and anxiety on persistence. The mediated model was supported for men and women, proximal and long‐distance relationships, and college student and community samples.     

Gender-role's attitude, perceived similarity, and sexual prejudice against gay men

Two hundred and twenty-six heterosexual participants (115 women and 111 men) were asked to indicate their attitude toward gender-roles, their perceived similarities with gay men, and their attitude toward gay men (i.e., sexual prejudice). As expected, male participants showed more sexual prejudice than female participants, and perceived dissimilarities were related to a greater sexual prejudice. Support for gender-roles was related to sexual prejudice for male participants, but not for female participants. More interestingly, the three-way interaction suggested that perceived similarities moderated the link between gender-roles and sexual prejudice among heterosexual men, but not among heterosexual women. Attitude in favor of traditional gender-roles was related to sexual prejudice for male participants who perceived gay men as different, but not for those who perceived gay men as similar. These findings are discussed in terms of the defensive function of men's attitude toward homosexuality as a result of threat to masculinity.     

Daily stress,closeness, and satisfaction in gay and lesbian couples

A daily diary analysis of the associations among stress, closeness, and relationship and sexual satisfaction was conducted with a sample of 40 gay male and 55 lesbian couples. Using interdependence theory as a guide, both actor and partner effects of stress, closeness, and their interaction were investigated. As predicted, it was found that participants' own feelings of closeness toward their partners buffered the negative association between stress and satisfaction but that when participants' partners felt particularly close on a stressful day their closeness exacerbated associations between stress and reduced satisfaction. These contrasting effects of closeness underscore the importance of considering the daily processes of both partners contributing to relationship quality.     

Linking Adult Attachment Styles to Relationship Satisfaction in Hong Kong and the United States: The Mediating Role of Personal and Structural Commitment

Maintaining a satisfying heterosexual relationship is important to many individuals?? happiness and physical health. Evolutionary theories on the formation of relationships suggest that adult attachment and relationship commitment are universal mechanisms for securing and maintaining such mating relationships. This study sought to understand how these two mechanisms may link to each other and how they in turn contribute to relationship satisfaction with one??s current partner in Hong Kong Chinese and American cultures. Similarities in the model for relationship satisfaction were found among young dating couples in the United States and Hong Kong. Specifically, attachment anxiety was positively linked to structural commitment, whereas attachment avoidance was negatively related to personal commitment. Both dimensions of attachment (anxiety and avoidance) and both components of commitment (personal and structural) were found to predict current relationship satisfaction significantly and equivalently across cultures, with the pathway from attachment avoidance to current relationship satisfaction similarly mediated by personal commitment in both cultural groups. These results were interpreted in terms of a probable universal logic informing the interpersonal dynamics involving attachment and relationship commitment.     

Correlates of relationship satisfaction in cohabiting gay and lesbian couples: integration of contextual, investment, and problem-solving models.

This study examined the relation between relationship satisfaction and variables representing the contextual, investment, and problem-solving models of intimate relationships. Ss were 75 gay and 51 lesbian cohabiting couples. There were very few instances in which mean levels of model variables differed significantly for gay and lesbian couples. The strength of the correlates of relationship satisfaction rarely differed between gay and lesbian couples. Relationship satisfaction was related to variables from each of the 3 models. Support was obtained for a mediational model that proposed ordered linkages among variables from the 3 models.