Measuring individual differences in the tendency to forgive: construct validity and links with depression

Four studies examine the construct validity of the Tendency to Forgive Scale (TTF), a brief measure of dispositional forgiveness. Study 1 showed that romantic partners' ratings of targets converged with targets' self-ratings, and Study 2 demonstrated that higher scores on the TTF were associated with lower offense accessibility. Study 3 examined the TTF's relation to self-reported depression symptoms, both independent of and interacting with attitudes toward forgiveness and dispositional vengeance. Lower TTF scores were associated with higher degrees of depression, especially for individuals with positive attitudes toward forgiveness or those low in dispositional vengeance, although neither of these latter variables displayed significant zero-order relations with depression. Finally, Study 4 examined relations between the TTF, dispositional empathy, another recent measure of dispositional forgiveness, and the dimensions of the Big Five, providing both convergent and discriminant validity evidence for the TTF.     

A prototype analysis of forgiveness

Many definitions of forgiveness currently exist in the literature. The current research adds to this discussion by utilizing a prototype approach to examine lay conceptions of forgiveness. A prototype approach involves categorizing objects or events in terms of their similarity to a good example, whereas a classical approach requires that there are essential elements that must be present. In Study 1, participants listed the features of forgiveness. Study 2 obtained centrality ratings for these features. In Studies 3 and 4, central features were found to be more salient in memory than peripheral features. Study 5 showed that feature centrality influenced participants' ratings of victims involved in hypothetical transgressions. Thus, the two criteria for demonstrating prototype structure (that participants find it meaningful to judge features in terms of their centrality and that centrality affects cognition) were met.     

Conditional or Unconditional Forgiveness? An Instrument to Measure the Conditionality of Forgiveness

Among the beliefs and concepts people hold about the nature of forgiveness, their notions of conditionality and unconditionality have not received sufficient study. The concept of conditional forgiveness posits that before forgiveness can be granted, the offender must take certain steps and meet specific conditions. From an unconditional forgiveness concept, the victim can forgive independently of the behavior of the wrongdoer. Hence, the aim of our study has been to develop a strong psychometric instrument to measure the beliefs people hold about the conditionality of forgiveness. This article presents the development and validation of a tool to measure these beliefs. Study 1 comprised 181 participants, whereas 492 conformed Study 2 and 109 took part in Study 3. Internal consistency and validity were analyzed. Exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis were conducted, along with correlational analysis to test convergent validity, stability, and prediction capability. Results show a two-dimensional structure of the Conditional–Unconditional Forgiveness Scale, indicating the appropriateness of this tool to assess beliefs about the conditionality of forgiveness. The belief in the unconditional nature of forgiveness showed positive and significant correlations with all the measurements of offense-specific forgiveness. On the other hand, the belief that forgiveness should be conditional showed lower correlations with all the forgiveness measurements. Not only the ultimate level of forgiveness the subjects experienced but also their emotional experience of the process can be very different depending on their views of forgiveness, among them their beliefs about conditionality.     

Maladaptive correlates of the failure to forgive self and others: further evidence for a two-component model of forgiveness

In a sample composed of 162 young adults, we examined the generalizability of an orthogonal, 2-component model of forgiveness previously reported by Ross, Kendall, Matters, Rye, and Wrobel (2004). Furthermore, we examined the relationship of these two components with maladaptive personality characteristics as measured by the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP; Clark, 1993), with an emphasis on Five-factor model markers of personality. Using multiple measures of forgiveness, principal components analysis supported a 2-component model representing self-forgiveness and other forgiveness. Despite the independence of self-forgiveness and other forgiveness, zero order correlations with SNAP scales supported convergent more than discriminant validity. In contrast, hierarchical multiple regression analyses emphasized the discriminant validity of self-forgiveness and other forgiveness. Among indices of Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Agreeableness, Negative Temperament (+) was the sole predictor of self-forgiveness. In contrast, Positive Temperament (+), Aggression (-), and Histrionic PD (-) were most associated with other forgiveness. Overall, these findings support the validity of these factors and highlight the importance of self-forgiveness in clinical assessment.     

Office job sitting demand scale: Evidence of construct and predictive validity

Drawing on sedentary behavior and Job Demands-Resources theory, we developed a new scale for assessing office job sitting demand, conceptualized as job demand, and validated it using two independent samples. In Study 1 (N = 252), we developed the items and tested the Office Job Sitting Demand scales' factor structure through exploratory factor analysis. In Study 2 (N = 248), we tested the scales' factorial validity through confirmatory factor analysis. Indicators of measurement invariance showed no differences between participants who engage in leisure-time sport and participants who do not. Moreover, we tested convergent, discriminant, and criterion validity. We found significant positive associations with exhaustion, work pressure, and musculoskeletal complaints. The construct was unrelated to proactive vitality management and relaxation. Our results illustrate the relation between this new job demand in the workplace with employee well-being. Based on our findings, this newly developed instrument is valid and reliable and can be used to assess office job sitting demand to prevent burnout and health complaints.     

The abbreviated multidimensional acculturation scale: empirical validation with two Latino/Latina samples

Two studies were conducted to develop and examine internal consistencies and validate the Abbreviated Multidimensional Acculturation Scale. Study 1 participants were 156 Latino/Latina college students. Findings indicated good internal reliabilities for all 3 subscales. Adequate concurrent validity was established with length of residence in the United States. The scale also showed adequate convergent and discriminant validity. Study 2 participants were 90 Latino/Latina community members. The subscales were also reliable and showed adequate concurrent validity with length of residence in the United States. Convergent and discriminant validity were also adequate. Construct validity was further demonstrated through factorial analyses of the combined samples (N = 246). Three separate factors emerged: cultural identity, language competence, and cultural competence.     

TDQ-60 – a color picture-naming test for adults and elderly people: validation and normalization data

Word-finding difficulties are usually assessed with picture-naming tests. In this article, we present the TDQ-60, a new test designed to assess acquired lexical access deficits, taking into account semantics and psycholinguistic variables. The article includes three studies. Study 1 describes the development phase of the TDQ-60. In study 2, healthy control participants and individuals with a diagnosis of the semantic variant of primary progressive aphasia were assessed to establish the convergent and discriminant validity of the TDQ-60. Finally, in Study 3, a group of 305 young and elderly French-speaking adults from Quebec were assessed in order to provide normative data. The results demonstrate that the TDQ-60 has good convergent validity and good discriminant validity. This study also provides normative data in which were considered the effect of age and education.The TDQ-60 is a new valid picture-naming test, controlled for psycholinguistic variables and designed to identify the influence of semantics on lexical access in spoken production.     

Construct validity of the relationship profile test: three-year retest reliability and links with core personality traits, object relations, and interpersonal problems

The Relationship Profile Test (RPT; Bornstein & Languirand, 2003) is a 30-item self-report measure of destructive overdependence, dysfunctional detachment, and healthy dependency. Previous research has shown that the 3 RPT subscales have adequate internal consistency, good retest reliability over 23 and 85 weeks, and good convergent and discriminant validity with respect to measures of attachment style, relatedness, gender role, self-concept, alexithymia, locus of control, need for approval, and life satisfaction. In this investigation, we assessed the 3-year retest reliability of RPT scores in a northeastern liberal arts college student sample (Study 1) and evaluated the convergent and discriminant validity of RPT scores in a southern university sample (Study 2). Results generally supported the long-term stability and convergent and discriminant validity of RPT scores but also pointed to some limitations of the measure. We discuss implications of these results and describe future research directions.     

Development and initial validation of an indirect measure of transformational leadership integrity

An indirect measure of transformational leadership integrity was developed across three studies. In Study 1, the transformational leadership integrity implicit association test (TLI-IAT) was developed and tested with 65 leaders across heterogeneous organizational contexts. Study 2 involved 51 coaches from 18 sports. Results from Studies 1 and 2 supported the construct validity of the instrument, providing evidence of the instrument's convergent and discriminant validity. Study 3 involved 32 coaches and 133 players from six sports. Findings supported the criterion validity of the measure, providing evidence for the instrument's predictive validity. In sum, evidence is presented that supports the TLI-IATs construct and criterion validity. As such, the present research has made significant advancements to the transformational leadership integrity literature and provides researchers with an indirect measure of automatic transformational leadership integrity self-attitudes.     

The Development and Validation of the Genderism and Transphobia Scale

A series of three studies were conducted to develop and validate a scale to measure violence, harassment, and discrimination toward cross-dressers, transgenderists, and transsexuals. In Study 1, we developed the Genderism and Transphobia Scale (GTS). In Study 2, we established the GTS's ability to predict parents' reactions to either a gender conforming or a gender non-conforming boy or girl. Correlations between the GTS and scales that assess homophobia and gender role ideologies suggest convergent validity. In Study 3, we conducted a factor analysis of the scale, found further evidence of the scale's discriminant and convergent validity, and tested the scale's ability to predict previous contact with gender non-conformists. Taken as a whole, the results of these studies demonstrate the basic psychometric properties of a new and useful scale to measure antipathy toward people who cross genders and sexes.     

Shifting toward cooperative tendencies and forgiveness: How partner‐focused prayer transforms motivation

Several studies tested whether partner‐focused prayer shifts individuals toward cooperative tendencies and forgiveness. In Studies 1 and 2, participants who prayed more frequently for their partner were rated by objective coders as less vengeful. Study 3 showed that, compared to partners of targets in the positive partner thought condition, the romantic partners of targets assigned to pray reported a positive change in their partner's forgiveness. In Study 4, participants who prayed following a partner's “hurtful behavior” were more cooperative with their partners in a mixed‐motive game compared to participants who engaged in positive thoughts about their partner. In Study 5, participants who prayed for a close relationship partner reported higher levels of cooperative tendencies and forgiveness.     

An examination of the construct validity of the Social Anhedonia Scale

Two studies bearing on the construct validity of the Social Anhedonia Scale (SA) are reported. Study 1 reported convergent validity coefficients between the SA scale and numerous measures of traits reflecting a generalized attitude toward others (e.g., social interest and empathy) as well as several traits reflecting maladjustment without a social component as a test of discriminant validity (e.g., pessimism and rigidity). Study 1 found impressive convergent validity for the SA scale and mixed discriminant validity. Study 2 found that the SA scale was related to two dimensions of striving for security, one of which is strongly influenced by negative interpersonal tendencies, suggesting support for the validity of the SA scale. Implications for the measurement and concept of social anhedonia are presented.     

Development and initial validation of the medical fear survey-short version

The present investigation employs item response theory (IRT) to develop an abbreviated medical fear survey (MFS). Application of IRT analyses in study 1 (n = 931) to the original 50-item MFS resulted in a 25-item shortened version. Examination of the location parameters also resulted in a reduction of the Likert-type scaling of the MFS by removing the last response category ("terror"). The five subscales of the original MFS were highly correlated with those of the MFS-short version. The short version also displayed comparable convergent and discriminant validity with the original MFS in relation to measures of fear, disgust, and anxiety. Confirmatory factor analysis in Study 2 revealed that the five-factor structure of the MFS-short form fit the data well in U.S. (n = 283) and Dutch (n = 258) samples. The short form also had comparable convergent and discriminant validity with the original MFS in relation to domains of disgust in both samples. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis in Study 3 demonstrated that the subscales of the short version were comparable with the original MFS in classifying participants high (n = 40) and low (n = 40) in blood/injection phobia. Last, structural equation modeling in Study 4 (n = 113) revealed that the MFS-short form demonstrated excellent convergent/discriminant validity with strong associations with injection fear and no association with spider fear. These findings suggest that the MFS-short form has considerable strengths, including decreased assessment time, while retaining sound psychometric properties.     

Development of the Japanese Version of the Generic Conspiracist Beliefs Scale (GCBS-J)

Generic conspiracist belief refers to the general tendency toward conspiracist ideation independent of specific event-based conspiracy theories. The present research aimed to develop a Japanese version of the Generic Conspiracist Beliefs Scale (GCBS-J). In two studies, we examined the factor structure, reliability, and convergent and discriminant validity of the GCBS-J. In Study 1 (N = 600), exploratory factor analysis with a split-half subsample proposed a two-factor solution dissociating extraterrestrial conspiracy from other conspiracist ideations. Subsequent confirmatory factor analysis with the other split-half subsample confirmed the two-factor structure. Study 1 also established convergent validity by indicating strong positive correlations with other measures of conspiracist belief. Study 2 (N = 178) added further evidence to indicate a positive correlation with related psychological constructs, such as paranormal beliefs. Study 2 also confirmed temporal test–retest reliability and the discriminant validity of the GCBS-J by indicating no association with an unrelated construct, namely Big-Five personality traits. These findings suggest that the GCBS-J is a useful tool for assessing generic conspiracist beliefs within Japanese samples.     

Relational humility: conceptualizing and measuring humility as a personality judgment

The study of humility has progressed slowly due to measurement problems. We describe a model of relational humility that conceptualizes humility as a personality judgment. In this set of 5 studies, we developed the 16-item Relational Humility Scale (RHS) and offered initial evidence for the theoretical model. In Study 1 (N = 300), we developed the RHS and its subscales--Global Humility, Superiority, and Accurate View of Self. In Study 2, we confirmed the factor structure of the scale in an independent sample (N = 196). In Study 3, we provided initial evidence supporting construct validity using an experimental design (N = 200). In Study 4 (N = 150), we provided additional evidence of construct validity by examining the relationships between humility and empathy, forgiveness, and other virtues. In Study 5 (N = 163), we adduced evidence of discriminant and incremental validity of the RHS compared with the Honesty-Humility subscale of the HEXACO-PI (Lee & Ashton, 2004).     

A Multitrait Multimethod Measurement Approach to the Traits (or States) of Anxiety,Depression and Hostility

This study tested the convergent and discriminant validities of various psychological techniques used for the measurement of the affects of anxiety, depression and hostility. The subjects were 29 psychiatric patients and 25 normal controls, all males. Subjects were interviewed and rated for the three affects and given an extensive battery of tests. Anxiety and depression measures from ratings, checklists, and questionnaires demonstrated good convergent validity but poor discriminant validity. The projective methods did not demonstrate much convergent validity. Hostility was separable from anxiety and depression but the tests showed poor convergent validity for hostility. In the normals, fantasy hostility (TAT) and admitted hostility (Multiple Affect Adjective Check List) showed some convergence, but in the patients there was no congruence between these two levels.     

Individual differences in analytic versus holistic thinking

The authors constructed the Analysis-Holism Scale (AHS) to measure analytic versus holistic thinking tendency. In Study 1, using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, a 24-item scale was developed. In Study 2, convergent and discriminant validities were tested. In Studies 3 and 4, the known-group difference validity was examined by comparing scores on the AHS of Americans and Koreans (Study 3) and of Korean students of Oriental medicine and Korean students of non-Oriental medicine majors (Study 4). Results of Studies 3 and 4 show that Koreans and Korean students of Oriental medicine scored higher on the AHS than did Americans and Korean students of non-Oriental medicine majors, respectively. Studies 5 and 6 tested predictive validity by examining associations of the AHS with performances on two cognitive tasks (categorization and causal reasoning). Data analysis shows that those with high scores on the AHS displayed the holistic pattern of performances on each task more than did those with low scores.