Supportive relationships in later life

We adopted a multidimensional approach to the study of the social support convoys of older adults. We distinguished between age and gender differences in four specific dimensions of the social support convoy: (a) existence versus functioning of relationships in the convoy, (b) kinds of relationships (i.e., those with children, siblings, and friends), (c) types of social support (i.e., emotional support, respect, and health support), and (d) receipt versus provision of support. Using a national survey of 718 adults, multivariate and univariate analyses of variance were performed to determine age and gender differences in these four dimensions of social support. The multidimensional approach was useful in pinpointing those aspects of the social support convoy affected by aging. We anticipated that the social support convoy would be devastated by aging. Instead, we found that older people received less support (i.e., emotional and health support) in the absence of sibling relationships. Otherwise, the effects of aging had more to do with what the older person contributed to the convoy than with what he or she received. Women had better social support resources than men, particularly within their friendships. We found no evidence, however, that women's social support advantage counterbalanced the effects of aging on the convoy.     

Rebuilding the network: New relationships in widowhood

This study examined the formation of nonkin relationships in widowhood, using personal network data from 548 older men and women who lost a partner through death fewer than 10 years earlier. Relationships established after the death of the spouse were cited by 27.6% of the respondents. New relationships with neighbors were cited in particular. New relationships were more often nominated by women than by men. Formation of new relationships was strongly and positively associated with the duration of widowhood, the presence of a new partner, and having put effort into seeking new relationships. The findings suggest that, to gain a proper understanding of why some widowed individuals form new relationships and others do not, knowledge is required about the quality of the social network prior to widowhood.     

鳏与寡对老年人抑郁水平的影响:社会网络的调节作用

为了进一步探讨丧偶与抑郁水平之间的关系,讨论社会网络（包括家庭网络和朋友网络）在其中的作用机制,并比较丧偶与抑郁水平的关系及社会网络作用机制的性别差异,本研究对中国老年社会追踪调查（CLASS）2014年调查中7649名老年人（其中丧偶老人2149名,男性715,女性1434;在婚老人5500名,男性3398,女性2102）的数据进行分析。结果发现,丧偶对老年人抑郁水平有消极影响,但影响作用不存在性别差异;男性丧偶老人的朋友网络显著低于男性在婚老人,而女性老年人中无此差异;相对于在婚老人,家庭网络对男性丧偶老人的抑郁水平的缓解作用更大,而在女性样本未发现家庭网络的缓冲作用。应重视丧偶老年人,特别是男性丧偶老年人,家庭网络的建设与维护,从而缓解丧偶对老年人心理健康的消极影响。     

Welfare participation and social support in late life

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among participation in welfare programs, gender, and change in social support in adults aged 65 and older. It was hypothesized that older men receiving public assistance would encounter more social network problems than older women on welfare. The findings reveal that during the 7-year study older men in receipt of welfare benefits, compared with older women on welfare, received less social support from others, were more dissatisfied with the assistance they got, and encountered more negative interaction from informal social network members (i.e., family and friends). The results suggest that those who administer welfare programs, as well as public policymakers, should consider developing interventions that address the wider psychosocial problems associated with receiving public assistance.     

我国老年人的社会支持与服务

鉴于我国老龄化现状,简要地回顾了社会支持的定义与种类,考察了我国传统的孝顺价值观和行为;并着重分析了我国老年人的社会支持与服务,包括老年人的社会支持与幸福感,老年人的家庭支持与照料,老年组织与公共老年服务;以及我国老年人社会支持的城乡差异。     

Widowhood and illness: a comparison of social network characteristics in France, Germany, Japan, and the United States.

This study examined social network characteristics of adults aged 70 to 90 years in relation to widowhood and illness in France, Germany, Japan, and the United States. Participants were drawn from representative samples from each of the 4 countries (total N = 1,331). Resource deficit profiles based on whether respondents were widowed, ill, both, or neither were directly related to social network characteristics for German and Japanese adults, were differentially related by gender and age for French adults, and were not related to social networks of Americans. Country, gender, and age differences in total network size, proportion of close network members, and frequency of contact with network members are reported. Similarities and differences found in the associations between normative late-life deficits and social network characteristics in the 4 countries point to the importance of investigating sociocultural factors that mediate the impact of resource loss and afford life quality in very old age.     

Functional versus structural social support, desirable events, and positive affect in older adults.

The independent contributions of structural social support versus functional support to positive affect in older adults were compared in this prospective design. Four social support models were translated from the stress-symptoms literature into promotional models for positive mental health and for relationships to desirable challenge events. A total of 1,031 older adults were interviewed 5 times at 6-month intervals, and events were measured across the middle 18-month period. The 2 support variables made quite different contributions. Functional support was directly related to positive affect 2 years later, independent of events; structural support had more transitory direct effects. Structural support, but not functional support, was related to the subsequent occurrence of challenge events and in turn was strengthened by challenge events, suggesting a dynamic interplay between the social network and desirable events.     

Substitution and compensation in the social networks of older widowed women

The death of a spouse often requires widows to derive support from other people, but little is known about the adaptive significance of such substitute sources of support. Older women (N = 322) widowed 3-30 months were interviewed 7 times over 1 year to investigate social network substitution (derivation of support from alternative social ties) and compensation (derivation of psychological benefits from these alternative ties). Three forms of substitution (formation of new social ties, rekindling of dormant ties, and intensification of existing ties) varied with the duration of widowhood. Regardless of the duration of widowhood, however, greater substitution was related to worse psychological health. Social network substitution appears to occur in widowhood, but the compensatory benefits of substitute ties are more elusive.     

Do Social Relationships Buffer the Effects of Widowhood? A Prospective Study of Adaptation to the Loss of a Spouse

The idea that strong social relationships can buffer the negative effects of stress on well‐being has received much attention in existing literature. However, previous studies have used less than ideal research designs to test this hypothesis, making it difficult to draw firm conclusions regarding the buffering effects of social support. In this study, we examined the buffering hypothesis in the context of reaction and adaptation to widowhood in three large longitudinal datasets. We tested whether social relationships moderated reaction and adaptation to widowhood in samples of people who experienced loss of a spouse from three longitudinal datasets of nationally representative samples from Germany (N = 1,195), Great Britain (N = 562), and Australia (N = 298). We found no evidence that social relationships established before widowhood buffered either reaction or adaptation to the death of one's spouse. Similarly, social relationships that were in place during the first year of widowhood did not help widows and widowers recover from this difficult event. Social relationships acquired prior to widowhood, or those available in early stages of widowhood, do not appear to explain individual differences in adaptation to loss.     

城市老年人社会支持网络与生活满意度的研究

本研究采用自编的社会支持网络调查表对上海市96位老人进行了调查，试图了解城市老年人社会支持的基本情况及其对生活满意度的影响。结果表明：（1）城市老年人社会支持网络得分为85．87±8．56（x±s）；（2）社会支持网络得分与生活满意度之间存在极其显著的正相关；（3）在各因素水平中，社会机构的支持对老年人生活满意度的影响最大，子女支持的影响次之，配偶支持的影响最小；情感支持的影响作用大于认知支持和行为支持。     

Social support and subjective well-being among Hong Kong Chinese young adults.

The associations between social support and 3 measures of subjective well-being--depressive symptomatology, negative affect, and positive affect--were studied among Hong Kong Chinese young adults (N = 475) between 16 and 19 years old. Significant bivariate relationships were found between positive affect and all dimensions of social support (including social network size, social contact frequency, satisfaction with social support, instrumental support, and helping others) except composition of social network. Helping others variables and relationship satisfaction variables were negatively related to both depressive symptoms and negative affect. Multiple regression models revealed that satisfaction with relationships with family members and friends was consistently associated with all measures of subjective well-being, and number of friends felt close to was positively related to positive affect.     

A Comparison of Wellness and Social Support Networks in Different Age Groups

Individual wellness and social support were studied in 2 different age groups for the purpose of gaining insight into how these variables are affected by adult development. The individual wellness and social support networks of young adults and older adults were compared. Significant differences between the 2 populations were found in both individual wellness and social support network. The younger population scored higher than the older population on all wellness variables except self care.     

Enacted support during stressful life events in middle and older adulthood: An examination of the interpersonal context

Individuals often turn to their close social ties for support during stressful life events. Although a great deal of work examines perceived support (i.e., support believed to be available should an event occur), less is known about enacted support (i.e., support actually provided during stressful events), especially among middle-aged and older people. The present study investigated whether enacted support (emotional or instrumental) varies by relationship quality and stress appraisals. Participants included 152 adults (principal respondents; aged 50 to 69 years, 63% women) who had experienced three or more stressful life events in the last year and 180 of their identified supportive ties (core network members). Multilevel models revealed that higher quality relationships enact high levels of support irrespective of high or low stress appraisals. In contrast, lower quality relationships enact greater support under conditions of higher stress but less support under conditions of lower stress, suggesting that lower quality relationships are mobilized only under higher levels of stress. Findings are consistent with the support provision process model and highlight the importance of considering relationship context and the stress continuum in studies of enacted support among older adults. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).     

Religion, Meaning in Life, and Change in Physical Functioning During Late Adulthood

This study has two primary goals. The first is to see whether select aspects of religion are associated with meaning in life. The second goal is to see whether change in meaning in life is associated with change in physical functioning. Data from a nationwide longitudinal survey of older people provide support for the following relationships: (1) older adults who attend church services more often tend to develop a closer relationship with God; (2) older people who have a closer relationship with God are more likely to provide emotional support to others; (3) elders who give emotional support to their social network members are more likely to have a stronger sense of meaning in life; and (4) older individuals who have a deeper sense of meaning in life are less likely to experience a decline in their physical functioning over time.     

Social Support from Family and Friends and Subjective Well-Being of Older African Americans

This study examines the impact of informal social support from family and friends on the well-being of older African Americans. Analyses are based on a nationally representative sample of older African Americans from the National Survey of American Life (n = 837). Three measures of well-being are examined: life satisfaction, happiness and self-esteem. The social support variables include frequency of contact with family and friends, subjective closeness with family and friends, and negative interactions with family. Results indicate that family contact is positively correlated with life satisfaction. Subjective closeness with family is associated with life satisfaction and happiness and both subjective closeness with friends and negative interaction with family are associated with happiness and self-esteem. There are also significant interactions between family closeness and family contact for life satisfaction, as well as friendship closeness and negative interaction with family for happiness. Overall, our study finds that family and friend relationships make unique contributions to the well-being of older African Americans. Qualitative aspects of family and friend support networks (i.e., subjective closeness, negative interactions) are more important than are structural aspects (i.e., frequency of contact). Our analysis verify that relationships with family members can both enhance and be detrimental to well-being. The findings are discussed in relation to prior research on social support and negative interaction and their unique associations with well-being among older African Americans.     

Social control,social support,and companionship in older adults' family relationships and friendships

Social control, social support, and companionship represent basic elements of many close relationships, yet we know relatively little about how these distinctive elements separately and jointly influence relationship quality. Control and support may have incompatible effects, with efforts by a family member or friend to influence a focal person's behavior undermining the sense of support in the relationship. We examined the implications of control, support, and companionship for the perceived quality of older adults’family relationships and friendships in a sample of 180 older adults. Analyses indicated that the participants’family members and friends were differentially involved in performing control, support, and companionship functions. In addition, perceived relationship quality appeared to be anchored in somewhat different functions for family members versus friends. The perceived quality of family ties was related to emotional support, companionship, and social control, whereas the perceived quality of ties with friends was related to emotional support, instrumental support, and companionship. Contrary to expectation, we found no evidence that social control detracted from perceived relationship quality or that social control interacted with social support in predicting relationship quality. The results help to extend existing knowledge of relationship specialization in later adulthood, and they underscore the usefulness of distinguishing social control, social support, and companionship.     

Changes in older Dutch adults’ role networks after moving

Using the convoy model (R. L. Kahn & T. C. Antonucci, 1980), this study examined the differential impact of relocation, depending on the distance moved, on the size of 3 types of role networks. A total of 890 Dutch nonmovers and 445 movers (aged 55–86 years) were selected from the Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam. Results of analyses of variance showed that the neighbor networks changed most after relocation. Long‐distance movers discontinued the largest number of relationships with fellow club members. As expected, moving did not affect coworker networks. The findings show that, consistent with the convoy model, role networks proved to be unstable. Older adults, however, restored their partial networks at the second observation by starting new relationships.     

Personality, social support, and psychological distress in later life

A conceptual model was developed to address 2 issues that have received relatively little attention in the social support literature. First, an attempt was made to assess the interrelationships among 3 types or dimensions of supportive social relations. In addition, the impact of selected psychological and social factors on social support use was examined. Findings from a nationwide survey of older adults in the United Kingdom suggest that social contact tends to increase the amount of received support, and received support in turn tends to bolster perceptions of support availability in the future (i.e., anticipated support). With regard to the second issue, social roles (especially marital status) and social extraversion emerged as potentially important correlates of social support use in later life.     

Daily Interactions and Affect in Older Adulthood: Family,Friends, and Perceived Support

Research suggests that family and friend support differentially impact well-being, although relatively few studies investigate how these relationships function day-to-day. The first goal of the study was to explore how interactions with family and with friends related to individuals’ daily experience of positive and negative emotion. The second goal of the study was to determine whether the perception that others were available to provide a particular type of support moderated the relationship between friend and family support and well-being each day. Multilevel Random Coefficient Modeling illuminated these linkages in data from 96 participants from Successful Aging in Context: The Macroenvironment and Daily Lived Experience (M _Age = 67 years, SD _Age = 4.9 years; range 58–86 years). Results revealed significant relationships between affect balance and satisfaction with the amount of support provided by family and by friends; in general, older adults reported a higher ratio of positive to negative affect on days they were more satisfied with the amount of support received from each source. Results of Level-2 analyses suggested that the perception that others were available to provide tangible assistance strengthened the relationship between satisfaction with family support and daily well-being; likewise, the availability of emotional support and advice strengthened the daily friend support–affect balance association. Overall, results suggest that global perceptions that network members are available to provide different types of support differentially augment the relationships between the social support older adults receive from friends and family each day and well-being; in so doing, these results suggest ways in which older adults can benefit most from existing support.     

家庭居住与机构居住老年人社会支持的比较研究

以65位家庭居住和92位机构居住的老年人为样本,采用Sherbourne和Stewart的MOS社会支持问卷和自编社会支持问卷调查了老年人的社会支持现状,比较了家庭居住与机构居住老年人社会支持的不同特点。结果发现：（1）家庭居住和机构居住老年人在社会支持维度上存在显著差异：在心理支持、行为支持、活动支持等维度上,机构居住的老年人显著高于家庭居住的老年人;而在感情支持维度上家庭居住的老年人显著高于机构居住的老年人。（2）社会支持对老年人的身心健康具有显著影响。（3）性别,年龄,教育水平,职业状况,婚姻状况,子女数量,健在兄弟姐妹数量等人口统计变量对不同居住背景老年人的社会支持有显著影响。