The influence of functional social support on executive functioning in middle-aged African Americans

Social support has a positive influence on cognitive functioning and buffers cognitive decline in older adults. This study examined the relations between social support and executive functioning in middle-aged adults. A community-based sample of African Americans completed the Interpersonal Support Evaluation List, a measure of functions of social support, and two measures of executive functioning, the Stroop Color and Word Test and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST). Hierarchical regression analyses were used to explore the hypothesis that different facets of perceived social support influence performance on measures of executive functioning. After controlling for age, gender, and education, social support facets including belonging support, self-esteem support, appraisal support, and tangible support were significant predictors of Stroop performance. In addition, tangible support significantly predicted WCST performance. These findings add to previous literature on social support and cognition; however, findings for middle-aged adults are unique and suggest that social support has a positive influence on some executive functions in African Americans prior to old age.     

The influence of functional social support on executive functioning in middle-aged African Americans

ABSTRACT

Social support has a positive influence on cognitive functioning and buffers cognitive decline in older adults. This study examined the relations between social support and executive functioning in middle-aged adults. A community-based sample of African Americans completed the Interpersonal Support Evaluation List, a measure of functions of social support, and two measures of executive functioning, the Stroop Color and Word Test and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST). Hierarchical regression analyses were used to explore the hypothesis that different facets of perceived social support influence performance on measures of executive functioning. After controlling for age, gender, and education, social support facets including belonging support, selfesteem support, appraisal support, and tangible support were significant predictors of Stroop performance. In addition, tangible support significantly predicted WCST performance. These findings add to previous literature on social support and cognition; however, findings for middle-aged adults are unique and suggest that social support has a positive influence on some executive functions in African Americans prior to old age.     

The relation of lifetime cognitive activity and lifetime access to resources to late-life cognitive function in older African Americans

Research in older Caucasians has demonstrated that cognitive activity is related to cognitive function in late adulthood. Knowledge of this association is limited in older minority populations. We examined the relation of cognitive activity and access to cognitive resources, with cognitive function in a group of 108 older African Americans. We constructed two scales to measure the frequency of cognitive activity and the presence of resources that promote cognitive activity during early and late life. Both measures had high internal consistency and the cognitive activity scale had adequate temporal stability over a 4-week interval. In analyses that controlled for age and education, more frequent lifetime cognitive activity was related to current cognitive function, but lifetime cognitive resources only approached significance. The results suggest that both measures are psychometrically sound in a minority population and that lifetime cognitive activity may contribute to current cognitive function in African Americans.     

Relationship between 24-Hour Ambulatory Blood Pressure and Cognitive Function in Healthy Elderly People

The idea that activity, both physical and mental, may be a protective factor against cognitive decline in later life has enjoyed currency in both the popular and general medical literature. However, considerable uncertainty remains about the relationship between activity and cognitive performance due to differing definitions of activity and to the use of select samples. The current report analysed data from a probability sample of 887 participants recruited from the community, aged 70-93 years in 1991 and followed up in 1994 and 1998. Activity was assessed using a six-item scale comprising activities that are both commonly undertaken and relevant to old age. Latent growth curves were fitted to longitudinal outcomes including activity, cognitive performance and health measures. Reduction in activity over the course of the study was observed in most participants. Substantial correlations between rates of change in activity and cognitive and health measures were observed. Decline in cognitive performance was also observed in a sub-sample of participants who maintained activity over the three waves of measurement. It was concluded that decline in mental and physical activity in older age is paralleled by decline in cognitive functioning and health. The results do not preclude the possibility that introduced modifications in activity might change the course of cognitive performance later in the life span. Further research is required to establish the causal nature of the relationship between activity and cognition.     

The Relation of Lifetime Cognitive Activity and Lifetime Access to Resources to Late-life Cognitive Function in Older African Americans

ABSTRACT

Research in older Caucasians has demonstrated that cognitive activity is related to cognitive function in late adulthood. Knowledge of this association is limited in older minority populations. We examined the relation of cognitive activity and access to cognitive resources, with cognitive function in a group of 108 older African Americans. We constructed two scales to measure the frequency of cognitive activity and the presence of resources that promote cognitive activity during early and late life. Both measures had high internal consistency and the cognitive activity scale had adequate temporal stability over a 4-week interval. In analyses that controlled for age and education, more frequent lifetime cognitive activity was related to current cognitive function, but lifetime cognitive resources only approached significance. The results suggest that both measures are psychometrically sound in a minority population and that lifetime cognitive activity may contribute to current cognitive function in African Americans.     

Use it or lose it: engaged lifestyle as a buffer of cognitive decline in aging?

Data from the Victoria Longitudinal Study were used to examine the hypothesis that maintaining intellectual engagement through participation in everyday activities buffers individuals against cognitive decline in later life. The sample consisted of 250 middle-aged and older adults tested 3 times over 6 years. Structural equation modeling techniques were used to examine the relationships among changes in lifestyle variables and an array of cognitive variables. There was a relationship between changes in intellectually related activities and changes in cognitive functioning. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that intellectually engaging activities serve to buffer individuals against decline. However, an alternative model suggested the findings were also consistent with the hypothesis that high-ability individuals lead intellectually active lives until cognitive decline in old age limits their activities.     

Relationships Among Education,Age, and Cognitive Functioning in Older African Americans: The Impact of Desegregation

The current study sought to examine whether there were differences in the structure of specific cognitive abilities and their association with age and education in a sample of African American elders with two different early educational experiences. The study was conducted with a sample of 197 community dwelling older adults ranging in age from 50 to 79 years (mean age = 61.50 years, SD = 7.30 years). The sample included 79 individuals who attended a desegregated school at anytime during their formal education, while 118 participants completed their schooling without ever attending a desegregated school. Major results included: (1) typical patterns among cognitive abilities and age as well as years of education were found in the full sample of participants; (2) the pattern of age differences in cognition differed between the two groups. Regarding the latter, the desegregated sample exhibited significant negative age differences for some cognitive abilities, while the segregated group did not. Discussion focuses on the importance of considering the nature of the educational experience when examining cognitive aging in African American elders.     

No protective effects of education during normal cognitive aging: results from the 6-year follow-up of the Maastricht Aging Study

Recent large-scale longitudinal aging studies question earlier claims that higher education protects against cognitive decline in older age. In the present study, the authors addressed this issue by determining whether educational level had an attenuating effect on the rate of cognitive change assessed with a broad range of neuropsychological tests in a community sample of 872 healthy individuals aged 49 to 81 years at baseline. The participants were followed for 6 years and were tested 3 times (at baseline and at 3 and 6 years after baseline). Results of linear mixed-model analyses showed that education had no significant effect on cognitive change over time. These results are discussed in terms of the age range of the sample, definition and range of education, cognitive measures used, length of the study and number of consecutive assessments, and confounding effect of health. The findings question the extent of the presumed protective effects of higher education on cognitive decline during normal aging.     

The development of a physical education state anxiety scale: a preliminary study

The aim of the present study was to develop a measure of state anxiety for school physical education. The Physical Education State Anxiety Scale was designed to assess the basic anxiety dimensions plus the related cognitive processes. High school students (n = 631) completed the scale just prior to a test on two track and field tasks, in order to create a stressful condition. Data from the sample were randoml y split in two and subjected to exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, which supported the proposed three-factor structure of Worry, Cognitive Processes, and Somatic Anxiety. Internal consistency coefficients were acceptable. Moderate correlations among the subscale scores supported its construct validity. Results provide preliminary evidence for validity and reliability.     

Personality as a Source of Individual Differences in Cognition among Older African Americans

Previous research suggests that demographic factors are important correlates of cognitive functioning in African Americans; however, less attention has been given to the influence of personality. The present study explored how dimensions and facets of personality predicted individual variability in cognition in a sample of older African Americans from the Baltimore Study of Black Aging. Cognition was assessed by verbal learning and attention/working memory measures. Personality was measured by the NEO Personality Inventory-Revised. Linear regressions controlling for demographic factors showed that Neuroticism, Openness, and Agreeableness were significant regression predictors of cognitive performance. Individual facets of all five personality dimensions were also associated with cognitive performance. These findings suggest personality is important in understanding variability in cognition among older African Americans.     

Effortful semantic decision-making boosts memory performance in older adults

A major concern in age-related cognitive decline is episodic memory (EM). Previous studies indicate that both resource and binding deficits contribute to EM decline. Environmental support by task manipulations encouraging stronger cognitive effort and deeper levels of processing may facilitate compensation for these two deficits. To clarify factors that can counteract age-related EM decline, we assessed effects of cognitive effort (four levels) and level of processing (LoP, shallow/deep) during encoding on subsequent retrieval. Young (YAs, N?=?23) and older (OAs, N?=?23) adults performed two incidental encoding tasks, deep/semantic and shallow/perceptual. Cognitive effort was manipulated by varying decision-making demands. EM performance, indexed by d-prime, was later tested using a recognition task. Results showed that regardless of LoP, increased cognitive effort caused higher d-primes in both age groups. Compared to YAs, OAs showed a lower d-prime after shallow encoding across all cognitive effort levels, and after deep encoding with low cognitive effort. Deep encoding with higher levels of cognitive effort completely eliminated these age differences. Our findings support an environmental-compensatory account of cognitive ageing and can have important therapeutic implications.     

The Apartment Test: validity of a memory measure

The Memory in Reality (MIR) test, or Apartment Test, was designed as an ecologically valid alternative to word list recall measures. Participants name 10 everyday objects, place them in a scale model of an apartment and after a delay with interference, recall the objects and their placement. Two studies are reported. Study 1 included 51 older adult volunteers. Study 2 was a population-based sample of 633 older twins. The Apartment Test Recall and Placement tasks were highly correlated with word list delayed recall. Ecological validity was supported by correlations with informant reports of participants' functioning. Apartment Test Recall was not affected by education. Analysis of Receiver Operating Characteristics (ROC) showed Apartment Test Recall performed as well as word list delayed recall in distinguishing participants with and without dementia. We conclude that the Apartment Test is a valid measure of verbal memory with evidence of ecological and concurrent validity.     

Predictors of cognitive change from preclinical to clinical Alzheimer's disease

We examined individual-difference variables in relation to the rate of change in global cognitive performance, measured by the MMSE, from 3 years prior to diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) to the time of diagnosis. The population-based sample consisted of 230 incident AD persons who were followed over a 3-year interval. The average annual decline in MMSE was 1.81 points. Being older and acquiring additional diseases during the 3 years preceding diagnosis predicted a faster rate of decline in global cognitive functioning. However, other individual difference variables such as sex, education, depression, vitamin levels (vitamin B12 and folic acid), apolipoprotein status, and social network did not precipitate the rate of decline in the preclinical phase of AD.     

The Apartment Test: Validity of a Memory Measure

ABSTRACT

The Memory in Reality (MIR) test, or Apartment Test, was designed as an ecologically valid alternative to word list recall measures. Participants name 10 everyday objects, place them in a scale model of an apartment and after a delay with interference, recall the objects and their placement. Two studies are reported. Study 1 included 51 older adult volunteers. Study 2 was a population-based sample of 633 older twins. The Apartment Test Recall and Placement tasks were highly correlated with word list delayed recall. Ecological validity was supported by correlations with informant reports of participants' functioning. Apartment Test Recall was not affected by education. Analysis of Receiver Operating Characteristics (ROC) showed Apartment Test Recall performed as well as word list delayed recall in distinguishing participants with and without dementia. We conclude that the Apartment Test is a valid measure of verbal memory with evidence of ecological and concurrent validity.     

Engaging in cultural activities compensates for educational differences in cognitive abilities

ABSTRACT

The goal of the current project was to examine whether engagement in intellectual/cultural activities explains the long-term effects of education on cognitive abilities throughout adulthood, and whether it compensates for educational differences in cognitive abilities throughout adulthood. Participants between 18 and 96 years of age completed a comprehensive questionnaire about intellectual/cultural activities that they participated in and performed a wide variety of cognitive tests. There were no mediation effects of engagement in intellectual/cultural activities on the relationship between education and cognitive functioning. In contrast, engagement in intellectual/cultural activities was found to moderate the relations between education and the level of fluid ability, working memory, speed of processing, and episodic memory. Findings suggest that the risk of cognitive decline in people with less education can be reduced via engagement in intellectual and cultural activities throughout adulthood.     

Engaging in cultural activities compensates for educational differences in cognitive abilities

The goal of the current project was to examine whether engagement in intellectual/cultural activities explains the long-term effects of education on cognitive abilities throughout adulthood, and whether it compensates for educational differences in cognitive abilities throughout adulthood. Participants between 18 and 96 years of age completed a comprehensive questionnaire about intellectual/cultural activities that they participated in and performed a wide variety of cognitive tests. There were no mediation effects of engagement in intellectual/cultural activities on the relationship between education and cognitive functioning. In contrast, engagement in intellectual/cultural activities was found to moderate the relations between education and the level of fluid ability, working memory, speed of processing, and episodic memory. Findings suggest that the risk of cognitive decline in people with less education can be reduced via engagement in intellectual and cultural activities throughout adulthood.     

Cross-cultural aspect of the Group Embedded Figures Test: norms for Turkish eighth graders

The Group Embedded Figures Test was administered to 206 Turkish (123 boys versus 83 girls) eighth grade students. Distribution characteristics, item analysis, reliability, and internal consistency are presented. No sex differences on subsections or the full scale were found. Socioeconomic status as indicated by parental education was significantly associated with the cognitive style scores of the students. Subjects whose fathers had a higher education outperformed those whose fathers had less education. No significant differences in students' means were found among groups whose mothers had low, middle, and high education. The Turkish sample showed the same performance as a 5th grade American sample, and Canadian 8th graders outperformed the Turkish participants. The practice effects are also discussed.     

Parental socioeconomic status and child intellectual functioning in a Norwegian sample

Socioeconomic status (SES) in childhood has been linked to cognitive function and future academic and occupational success in studies from several countries. However, previous Nordic studies have shown inconsistent results regarding the strength of this link. We therefore investigated the association between SES and cognitive functioning in a sample of 255 Norwegian children, including 151 typically developing children and 104 children with a psychiatric diagnosis. The third edition of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC‐III) to assess cognitive function was used. SES was defined from maternal and paternal education and family income of typically developing children and of a subsample of children with a psychiatric diagnosis. Multiple adjusted regression analyses were used to investigate the relation between SES and cognitive functioning. The analyses showed that SES explained a significant part of the variance of the full‐scale WISC‐III score and two WISC‐III indices (Verbal Comprehension and Freedom from Distractibility). Overall, the strength of the relations was weaker than expected from reports from other non‐Nordic countries. Parental education was the only significant individual predictor, suggesting that income was of minor importance as a predictor of cognitive functioning. Further studies should investigate how diverse political and socioeconomic contexts influence the relation between SES and cognitive functioning.     

Family Functioning Assessment in a Community Sample of African American Caregivers and Children

Racial/ethnic minority youth receive approximately half of the mental health services of their non-minority peers. Improved methods for identifying African American families in need of behavioral health services are necessary. The Family Assessment Device and General Functioning subscale have been found to be reliable and able to detect family functioning impairment in a generalized sample, but less is known about the reliability and validity of the assessment with an African American community sample. Data from 53 African American caregiver-child (ages 7–13) dyads was collected including family demographics and the Family Assessment Device General Functioning (FAD_GF) scale. Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to determine the minimal number of FAD_GF items (12 vs. 6 items) that were valid and reliable. The 12-item FAD_GF and the 6-item scale had acceptable psychometric properties, and the 6-item measure demonstrated improved model fit over the 12-item scale and identified more clinically impaired families (6-item: 28% vs. 12-item: 23%). The 6-item measure of family functioning was more sensitive 12-item FAD_GF. This brief measure may prove useful for identifying and assessing African American families.

     

Correlates of memory decline: a 4-year longitudinal study of older adults with memory complaints.

Change in memory performance and its correspondence to change in speed of performance and self-reported memory functioning were investigated longitudinally in 30 older adults with memory complaints. Subjects were assessed by self-report questionnaires and cognitive tests 3 times, at near 2-year intervals. A significant decline in word-recall scores was found, which was accompanied at the group level by significant self-reported decline in everyday memory functioning and nonsignificant decline in Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Digit Symbol scores (alpha = .05). The oldest subjects showed the most substantial declines in memory performance. At the individual level, however, memory change did not significantly correlate with either change in self-reports or change in Digit Symbol scores. Although these results do not support a cognitive slowing model of decline at the intraindividual level, they do have implications for intervention of age-related memory decline.