Predicting Re-Victimization of Battered Women 3 Years After Exiting a Shelter Program

This study examined interpersonal and ecological predictors of re-victimization of a sample of women with abusive partners. All women (N = 124) had sought refuge from a battered women’s shelter 3 years earlier, and half the sample had been randomly assigned to receive free, short-term advocacy services immediately upon exit from the shelter. Results 2 years post-intervention revealed positive change in the lives of participants (C. M. Sullivan & D. Bybee, 1999), including a decrease in abuse for women who had worked with advocates. The current study examined intervention effects 3 years after the program ended, as well as other predictors of re-abuse. Nineteen percent of the original sample had experienced domestic violence between 2 and 3 years after shelter exit (65% by current partners, 35% by ex-partners). The advocacy program’s effect on risk of re-victimization did not continue 3 years post-intervention. However, having worked with an advocate 3 years prior continued to have a positive impact on women’s quality of life and level of social support. The risk of being abused 3 years post-shelter stay was exacerbated by a number of factors present 1 year prior, including women’s (1) having experienced abuse in the 6 months before that point; (2) having difficulties accessing resources; (3) having problems with the state welfare system; and (4) having people in their social networks who made their lives difficult. Women were at less risk of abuse if, 1 year earlier, they (1) were employed; (2) reported higher quality of life; and (3) had people in their networks who provided practical help and/or were available to talk about personal matters. These findings support the hypothesis that access to resources and social support serve as protective factors against continued abuse.     

Pilgrimage expansion through tourism in contemporary India: the development and promotion of a Hindu pilgrimage circuit

This article investigates the development and promotion of the Char Dham Yatra (or Char Dham), a Hindu pilgrimage route in the Himalayas, to challenge some prevalent assumptions and models in current scholarship concerning pilgrimage and tourism. I argue that the current prominence of the Char Dham is closely tied to the efforts of public tourism agencies and the coming together of a popular religious concept (Char Dham) with a unit of tourism development (circuit). Turning to promotional literature, I find that, while the Char Dham is increasingly framed to incorporate tourist interests, it continues to retain a religious profile. Contemporary Char Dham guidebooks combine and sometimes merge tourist and religious selling points. The Char Dham is promoted as a picturesque pilgrimage that allows for both homage and holiday. Contrary to popular opinion, the findings of my research suggest that the interplay between pilgrimage and tourism produces changes in, rather than the removal of, pilgrimage religiosity and associated religious communication.     

Battered women's coping strategies and psychological distress: differences by immigration status

People are rarely passive, and battered women are no exception. This study investigated the types of coping strategies women of Japanese descent (both Japan-born and U.S.-born) chose and their perceived effectiveness in dealing with their partners' violence. Japan-born respondents were significantly less likely to use active strategies and perceived them to be less effective than did U.S.-born respondents. For the Japan-born, the more effective they perceived active strategies, the higher their psychological distress, whereas the more effective they perceived passive strategies, the lower their psychological distress. In contrast, for the U.S.-born, the higher the perceived effectiveness of active strategies, the lower their psychological distress, and the perceived effectiveness of passive strategies had little effect on their psychological distress. The complex relationship between individuals' country of birth, the choice and perceived effectiveness of coping strategies, and psychological distress calls for increased attention to the role of culture in studies of coping and domestic violence.     

Social Workers and Battered Women: The Need to Study Client Violence in the Domestic Violence Field

Domestic violence is a significant issue for the United States and internationally. Although many social workers may desire to work in the domestic violence field, such work is far more difficult and challenging than many social workers would expect. In fact, many domestic violence workers are abused by their clients or their clients' family members in the course of their work. The purpose of this article is to clarify why examining client violence toward workers in the domestic violence field is critically important, describe the current state of the research, and discuss recommendations for future research in this area.     

Association of intimate partner violence with sociodemographic factors in married women: a population-based study in Iran

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a neglected public health issue in Iran. This study was conducted among married women residing in urban Rasht (northern Iran), to estimate the prevalence and frequency of different forms of IPV from husband and their associations with socio-demographic factors. We carried out a population-based cross-sectional survey with cluster sampling design from February to October 2015. The samples consisted of married women aged ≥ 18 years with total household in Rasht city (north Iran) as the sample frame. We administered the Revised Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS-2) to estimate prevalence of past-year IPV. Of 2091 women, 57.1% had suffered psychological aggression, 27.6% physical abuse, 26.6% sexual abuse, and 6.9% injury. A significant association with IPV was found for women with, age ≤ 40 years, unemployed, low education, husband’s addiction and rented-householders. Women who experienced physical abuse, had less age at marriage than women without violence. Also women with sexual coercion had less length of marriage than other non-abused women. On logistic regression, the strongest predictor of psychological, physical and sexual abuse was unemployment of spouse, whereas for injury it was low educational level (<12 years) of women. Our findings suggest that risk of IPV is high in our population. There is an obvious need of preventive and treatment activities. Our findings point at that various forms of abuse are different from each other in terms of differing characteristics of the perpetrators and it might be that also different strategies are needed to reduce and prevent these violence. Confirmation by further research is needed.     

Health consequences of intimate partner violence against married women: a population-based study in northern Iran

The effects of different types of intimate partner violence (IPV) on mental health are understudied. The aim of this study was to analyse the association between women’s mental health and physical, psychological and sexual IPV. We invited subjects of a population-based survey conducted in 2015 in Rasht, Iran, on IPV against women to complete the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28). The present research study is a secondary study based on these data and archival data from the 2015 study. For analysis, multivariate analysis of covariance was used. Additionally, predictors of IPV were evaluated using linear regression. A total of 2091 married women were surveyed. The participants were divided into abused women (n = 512, 24.5%) and non-abused women (n = 1579, 75.5%). The pattern of IPV among our patients showed more instances of psychological aggression than physical assault, sexual coercion or injury. Our results show that the non-psychotic psychiatric disorders of the victims were significantly impaired in all aspects, including somatic symptoms, anxiety/insomnia, social dysfunction, and depression. Except social dysfunction, the psychological and sexual abuse were significant predictors of other aspects of mental health. Our findings suggest that risk of IPV is high in this population. They also indicate that various forms of abuse are different from each other in terms of predicting a victim’s mental health. Different strategies may be required to reduce and prevent this violence. Additional research is needed to confirm and expand upon our findings.     

Psychological well‐being and pilgrimage: Religiosity,happiness and life satisfaction of Ardh–Kumbh Mela pilgrims (Kalpvasis) at Prayag,India

Pilgrimage is an important aspect of our life and has both religious as well as spiritual significance. The present study examined the relationship of religiosity, happiness and satisfaction with life in the case of pilgrims in a very special cultural context of the Ardh‐Kumbh Mela (held in Prayag, Allahabad, India) during the months of January and February, 2007). The study specifically examined these relationships in a sample of Kalpvasis (pilgrims who stay at the banks of the Sangam for a month in the holy city of Prayag during the Mela period). One hundred and fifty‐four Kalpvasis participated in the study. Positive association between religiosity, happiness and life satisfaction was obtained. Results showed that gender did not have a significant role on these relations in the case of pilgrims. Implications of these results are discussed.     

Eliminating the battering of women by men: Some considerations for behavior analysis

Based on review of representative literature, history and current research indicate that battering by male partners is a major health problem for women. Use of physical aggression and verbal coercion can be described by three-term contingencies involving escape, avoidance, punishment, and positive reinforcement. These contingencies occur within societal practices, rules, and models that involve oppression of women and insubstantial consequences for men who batter. The difficulties in directly observing a couple's interactions and their aggression have been a methodological barrier to the involvement of behavior analysts in treatment of and research on domestic violence. Recommendations are made for behavior analysts to contribute to reducing battering through development and analysis of program components and application of contingency management and behavioral training technology.     

Client perspectives: The therapeutic challenge of domestic violence counselling – a pilot study

Aims: This qualitative pilot study explored the perceptions of four female domestic violence clients regarding counselling they had concluded in order to identify a preliminary client‐preferred domestic violence counselling approach. Method: Semi‐structured interviews asking about significant events during counselling were held. An adapted grounded theory and narrative methodology was used. Results from the analysis were reviewed with two of the participants. Participants were offered additional counselling support if required after the research interview. Results/Findings: Domestic violence clients found starting counselling particularly difficult after years of keeping the abuse to themselves. Participants actively withheld and managed information for several sessions and needed to know they had time to explore their experiences. The counsellor being consistent and non‐judgemental, and understanding domestic violence and its effects was helpful. Having a clear ending was appreciated by the participants. Discussion: The initial development of the therapeutic relationship benefited from active discussion of how domestic violence could affect behaviour and emotions. Good early therapeutic relationships showed elements of the three main psychological schools. Participants benefited from a pro‐active discussion of endings. A key limitation of this research is the small sample size. Implications for practice: The research suggests that counsellors would benefit from knowledge and skills from different psychological schools and specific training in domestic violence. Allowing flexibility on the number of sessions available to clients may be helpful. Conclusions: Further work is required to explore these preliminary findings. However, early indications suggest that domestic abuse clients may benefit from non‐time‐limited specialist counselling services.     

Domestic violence and mental health in a Dutch community sample: The adverse role of loneliness

The present study explored whether the adverse mental health consequences of domestic violence victimization vary by type of loneliness (i.e., emotional and social loneliness). Participants were drawn from the Dutch city of Rotterdam (N = 7072). Domestic violence victimization, emotional loneliness and social loneliness were associated with self‐reported mental health. In addition, interaction effects were observed between domestic violence victimization and each type of loneliness. Implications for policy practice as well as strengths and limitations of the study were discussed. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Domestic violence against women: Understanding social processes and women's experiences

The prevalence of domestic abuse against women has been estimated as high as one in four. The risk is particularly high for women who are younger, economically dependent, unemployed and with children. Research about the factors that maintain situations of abuse has generally focused separately on the coping strategies of women, barriers to leaving the relationship and the perpetrators' means of abuse. In this study we used a community psychology perspective to seek a broader understanding of what maintains situations of abuse, in order to suggest interventions in a rural County in the North of England. Twelve women who had experienced domestic abuse and had used voluntary sector services agreed to be interviewed about their experiences and the resources and strategies available to them. Using grounded theory we generated four themes: (1) Commonalities and contradictions in the experience of abuse; (2) living with abuse; (3) the response of systems reinforced or challenged the abuse and (4) dealing with abuse beyond the relationship. These findings illustrate how situations of domestic abuse can be prolonged by limited options available to victims for support and protection, and a lack of active public acknowledgement that domestic abuse is unacceptable. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Childhood Exposure to Community and Domestic Violence: Prevalence,Risk Factors and Posttraumatic Outcomes in a South African Student Sample

The effects of exposure to direct and vicarious community and domestic violence on the posttraumatic adjustment of 323 South African students were examined. Data were collected using self-administered questionnaires, with the relationship between exposure to violence and posttraumatic outcomes being explored using binomial logistic regression analyses. Two hundred and sixty-two participants (81 %) reported that they had been exposed to some form of interpersonal violence during childhood. An analysis of risk factors for exposure to violence indicated that males were more than twice as likely as females to have experienced victimization by a community member. Direct exposure to domestic violence was the only form of violence which was found to be associated with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Among participants who had experienced direct domestic violence, clinically significant levels of PTSD were significantly predicted by both gender (being female) and by abuse chronicity.     

Division and demolition at the tomb of a beloved saint: The evolving character of an Orthodox Christian pilgrim centre in India

The paper explores some reasons for changes affecting a popular Orthodox Christian pilgrim centre in Kerala, South India. These changes have become apparent both in the style of conducting the pilgrimage and in the organisation of the site itself. They have occurred in the context of an ongoing ecclesiastical dispute which has divided Christians in Kerala throughout this century, creating a division which itself follows schisms and disputes in previous centuries. As a result there is rivalry between pilgrim centres of varying allegiance and also between different styles of worship, especially since the rise of charismatic movements. All of this has occurred against a background of increased politicisation of pilgrimage, and religion in general, in India. This has led to some concern that Christianity can be considered a ‘foreign’ religion, with attempts by Orthodox Christians to refute such a claim.     

A Solution-Focused Intervention with a Youth in a Domestic Violence Situation: Longitudinal Evidence

This article reports on a 4-year therapeutic intervention combining in-person and email communication with a 13-year-old Greek-Cypriot teenager who witnessed and later was the victim of severe domestic violence. The intervention is based on an empowerment philosophy and solution-focused strategies, and its usefulness is evaluated by three standardized measures at five time points between the years 1999 and 2003. Pertinent cultural and ethical dynamics of the interventional context are highlighted. The intervention may have helped to produce better perpetrator–youth relations, remission of the client’s depression and post-traumatic stress symptoms, and improvement in his academic performance. Implications and limitations are discussed.     

The violent matrix: a study of structural,interpersonal, and intrapersonal violence among a sample of poor women

One goal of this paper is to present an integrated tripartite model of violence, with a focus on structural violence within an oppression paradigm. Using qualitative and quantitative data from 27 women (70% African American and 30% European American) who participated in a national substance abuse treatment demonstration program, we describe a model of violence in which structural violence is presented within a transactional relationship with interpersonal, and intrapersonal violence. We suggest that the effects of structural, interpersonal, and intrapersonal violence are magnified when race and poverty are considered. The second goal of the paper is to present a preliminary test of the new model of violence. Results indicated that different levels and types of violence are interrelated. Implications of these findings for empowering solutions are suggested.     

The Complexity of Community Engagement: Developing Staff–Community Relationships in a Participatory Child Education and Women's Rights Intervention in Kolkata Slums

Dissatisfaction with inflexible top‐down development interventions has led to a demand for more community‐led approaches and the proliferation of terms such as participation, empowerment, and community ownership. However, the practical implications of these terms remain unclear. This study examined how sociocultural factors influenced relationship building between NGO staff and community members, and how this mediated community participation in a child education and women's rights intervention in Kolkata. Twenty interviews and one focus group were conducted with NGO staff, pupils, and members of a women's group. A thematic analysis produced five global themes: Sociocultural Context, Staff–Community Divide, Power Dynamics, Building Relationships, and Unstable Progress. Differences in social status, lifestyle, and priorities marked clear divisions between staff and community members, leading to communication difficulties and resistance ranging from suspicious stares to open hostility. Establishing mutual respect was a slow and unpredictable process often fuelled by unanticipated events such as staff helping with medical emergencies. A campaign against domestic violence prompted some women to physically attack men and vandalise property, provoking violent retaliation and creating divides within the community. Overcoming these challenges required a responsive approach which often deviated from operational and funding plans. The more participatory and community‐led an intervention, the less predictable it becomes. The flexibility needed to gain community acceptance and manage unanticipated events relies on trusting relationships between both communities and staff, and staff and donors. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Racial/ethnic differences moderate associations of coping strategies and posttraumatic stress disorder symptom clusters among women experiencing partner violence: a multigroup path analysis

Background: Past research underscores the key role of coping strategies in the development, maintenance, and exacerbation of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. The goal of the current study was to extend existing literature by examining whether race/ethnicity moderates the relations among coping strategies (social support, problem-solving, avoidance) and PTSD symptom clusters (intrusion, avoidance, numbing, arousal).

Methods: Participants were 369 community women (134 African Americans, 131 Latinas, 104 Whites) who reported bidirectional aggression with a current male partner. Multigroup path analysis was utilized to test the moderating role of race/ethnicity in a model linking coping strategies to PTSD symptom clusters.

Results: The strength and direction of relations among coping strategies and PTSD symptom clusters varied as a function of race/ethnicity. Greater social support coping was related to more arousal symptoms for Latinas and Whites. Greater problem-solving coping was related to fewer arousal symptoms for Latinas. Greater avoidance coping was related to more symptoms across many of the PTSD clusters for African Americans, Latinas, and Whites, however, these relations were strongest for African Americans.

Conclusion: Results provide support for the moderating role of race/ethnicity in the relations among coping strategies and PTSD symptom clusters, and highlight potential targets for culturally informed PTSD treatments.