FORWARD,TO THE EAST: NAPTHALI HERZ IMBER'S PERCEPTION OF KABBALAH

Naphtali Herz Imber is famous as the author of the Jewish national anthem, “Hatikvah” (“The Hope”). He is also quite well known for his non-conformism, vagabond lifestyle, and excessive drinking. However, his interest in the occult and Kabbalah are much less known. Imber wrote several articles on Jewish mysticism, translated some kabbalistic texts, and published the first journal on Kabbalah—Uriel: A Monthly Magazine Devoted to Cabbalistic Science (of which only one issue appeared). Although much scholarly literature has been devoted to Imber and his famous poem, his interest in the occult and Jewish mysticism has not been investigated. This article will discuss Imber's encounter with late-nineteenth-century esotericism, specifically the doctrines of Laurence and Alice Oliphant and the Theosophical Society. It presents Imber's notions concerning Jewish mysticism and examines the impact that the Theosophical Society and the Oliphants' principles had on his perception of Kabbalah. Finally, it discusses the connection between Imber's Zionism and his interest in Kabbalah and shows that his perception of Jewish mysticism, which was greatly influenced by Western esoteric ideas, was shaped in the framework of fin de siècle Orientalism and Jewish nationalism. Imber's positive evaluation of Jewish mysticism and its nationalistic interpretation anticipates the position of later Zionist scholars of Jewish mysticism, whose vision of Kabbalah and Hasidism largely shaped the way Jewish mysticism is perceived and studied today.     

Spirituality: The Emergence of a New Cultural Category and its Challenge to the Religious and the Secular

The present article examines spirituality as an emergent new cultural category that challenges the binary opposition of the religious and secular realms of life. The article probes the cultural significance of the popular phrase ‘spiritual, but not religious’ and examines the emergence of New Age spirituality within the framework of late capitalism and postmodern culture. It offers a new perspective on the debate of the secularization theory and re-examines the notions upon which this debate hinges. The article also examines the assessment of New Age spirituality as disguised neo-liberal ideology and proposes that the disparaging condemnations of contemporary spirituality can be seen as a response to its challenge to the entrenched notion that the religious and the secular are universal distinct categories.     

Religious studies and claims of satanic ritual abuse: A rejoinder to Stephen Kent

Care of the dying is likely to be a useful indicator of trends in Christianity, a religion which for centuries has been deeply concerned with the problem of death. The article identifies three approaches to the spiritual dimension in contemporary terminal care—a religious approach, an ecclesiastical approach and an approach that identifies the spiritual as the search for meaning. Though the ecclesiastical approach dominates practice, the ‘meaning’ approach is becoming fashionable and represents a highly individualized, postmodern variety of religion with similarities to the New Age—a surprising conjunction in those hospices with a Christian foundation.     

Maimonides' Guide of the Perplexed and the Kabbalah

Medieval Jewish mysticism was a multiform project in which Maimonides played different roles, for different mystical streams, and at different times. Maimonides' impact on Kabbalah was such that understanding the histories of both medieval Jewish philosophy and mysticism requires a more integrative approach than is usually adopted. The investigation into the activities of Abraham Abulafia as Maimonidean commentator and publicist undertaken here illustrates this point.     

Is There a Religious Revival among Hungarian Jews Today?

There are about 100,000 Jews in Hungary today. Most dwell in the capital, Budapest. Few are registered with the official Jewish community and most are assimilated. Since the demise of Communism in 1989, there has been a resurgence of Jewish life. However, can we say that there is a religious revival? There are new forms of Jewish religious life, but I argue that the revival is more cultural than religious in that more Jews are prepared to acknowledge their Jewish identity. In short, Jews are 'coming out'.     

LATE NIGHT THOUGHTS ON THE COSMIC SELF–NEW AND OLD: A REFLECTION ON THE COSMIC SELF:

Abstract. Responding to Ted Peters's The Cosmic Self , the author finds parallels and dissonances between New Age assertions and traditional mysticism, East and West. The comprehensive consciousness and interconnectedness of life are addressed by various mysticisms in their search for spiritual realities. However, many of the most recent movements are distinguished by superficiality.     

The Hasidic Ethos and the Schisms of Jewish Society

The early hasidic movement was distinguished by its readiness to see the sacred in everything. As presented by Rabbi Yaakov Yosef of Polonnoye (d. 1782), disciple of the Baal Shem Tov, this perception was particularly to be applied to fragmented eastern European Jewish society. The scholarly class saw themselves as “holy” but could not relate to the ignorant masses. Hasidic teachings sought to reveal the holiness in everyone and thus draw together these disparate classes, with a vision of an underlying unity of the Jewish people. During the nineteenth century, the Enlightenment and Reformist movements provoked a strong traditionalist reaction which eventually led to the contemporary ultra-orthodox (haredi) enclave. The haredi Jew consciously seeks to live in a separate society with invisible walls protecting the holiness within and keeping at bay the profane world outside. The hasidim form an important section of this haredi enclave, deliberately suppressing the earlier inclusivist hasidic ethos. In the mid-twentieth century, the Habad hasidic movement revived aspects of that ethos in a modern form, leading to its dominant contemporary mode of expression: outreach. At the same time, Habad seeks to remain part of the haredi world. This post-modern combination of opposites may eventually influence other haredi groups and lead to new configurations of the schisms provoked by the confrontation of tradition and modernity.     

This-worldly Mysticism: Inner Peace and World Transformation in the Work and Life of Charles “Skip” Alexander

This paper provides a new interpretation of the work and life of Charles Skip Alexander by placing it within the conceptual framework developed by Max Weber, the classical sociologist who created the most far-reaching historical and comparative theory of religion. While Weber developed a famous four-fold typology cross-cutting mysticism/asceticism and this-worldly/other-worldly, his belief that modern society implied ever increasing rationalization made the implied category of 'this-worldly mysticism' an oxymoron. Taking Skip Alexander's developmental model of higher stages of development as formalizing the implications of post-sixties New Age ideas and action, this paper argues that this-worldly mysticism is indeed a highly relevant contemporary category. This-worldly mysticism emphasizes direct experience of sacrality while trying to harness this experience to the service of practical social reform. It is argued that this mode of pursuing salvation will become increasingly important in the postmodern world.     

Jung and Kabbalah: imaginal and noetic aspects

Jung made use of kabbalistic images and motifs in various parts of his opus, including in his alchemical studies, in Aion, and extensively in Mysterium Coniunctionis. He also recorded an important dream after his heart attack which made use of kabbalistic symbolism in Memories, Dreams, Reflections. In this paper I explore Jung's ideas in relation to Kabbalah, first, by differentiating between Jung's imaginal approach to kabbalistic symbolism and the noetic intention of the Kabbalah itself in its use of imaginal material. Second, I present a number of typical examples of how Jung understands (and sometimes misunderstands) kabbalistic material that he cites. Third, I briefly survey the development of the Kabbalah as an imaginal noetic system, and present a core self-understanding of kabbalists--as engaged in inner 'self-work' which intends to 'sweeten the harsh judgments of existence in their very roots'. Finally, I differentiate Jung's understanding of the psychical living symbol from the kabbalistic understanding of the mystical symbol. In this fourth section of the paper, I conclude by presenting a basic Hasidic/kabbalistic teaching on the nature and function of verbal contemplative prayer--as an illustration of the difference between the two understandings of symbolism. The four sections of the paper are framed by a 'Prelude' and a 'Coda'.     

Arnold W. Brunner and the new classical synagogue in America

Arnold W. Brunner (1857–1925), Albert Kahn (1869–1942), and other Jewish architects played an important role in reviving the classical style for American synagogue design at the turn of the twentieth century, putting their stamp on American Jewish identity and American architecture. The American-born Brunner was the preferred architect of New York’s Jewish establishment from the 1880s until his death. He adopted the classical style with his third New York synagogue, Congregation Shearith Israel, dedicated in 1897, and then championed the style in his extensive public writing about synagogue design. The classical style was subsequently widely accepted nationally by Reform congregations, especially in the South and Midwest. Classicism was a mediating device, and served as a new emblem of religious and civic identity. Mixing a variety of architectural and cultural traditions, Jewish architects and their patrons created a bridge between Judaism—or Jewishness—and Americanism.     

Revisiting the spiritual supermarket: does the commodification of spirituality necessarily devalue it?

The New Age is often depicted as the quintessential spiritual marketplace in which seekers freely choose from an array of religious options. Empirically it is correct to point out that the movement has formed largely around consumption of goods and services offered for sale. Yet its commercial aspect is often conceptualised in relatively superficial terms. The notion that it is a ‘spiritual supermarket’ has been used to suggest that New Age consumer practices are trivial or socially insignificant. This has led some to call for a turn away from reductive market models. However, this article proposes that New Age studies should instead examine and theorise commercial dynamics more thoroughly, taking the lead from work in other disciplines that increasingly shows how economic, cultural and social life are deeply imbricated. Overcoming the taint of the spiritual supermarket allows a range of issues in the field to be explored more comprehensively.     

Mystics and Sufi masters: Thomas Merton and dialogue between Christians and Muslims

The Cistercian, Trappist monk Thomas Merton (1915–1968), author of numerous books on Christian spirituality, monasticism and social commentary, was a forerunner in popular inter‐religious dialogue in the twentieth century. In this connection, he is best known for his sympathetic explorations of themes from Asian religions, particularly Zen and other forms of Buddhism. This article calls attention to his studies in Islam, initially under the guidance of Louis Massignon (1883–1962), and particularly in Sufism. It highlights his interactions with a number of contemporary Muslim thinkers, and describes his decade‐long correspondence with a Pakistani Muslim student of Sufi texts, a unique instance of a sustained dialogue in letters on religious themes between a Muslim and a Christian in modern times. The article also calls attention to the ways in which Merton took inspiration from Islamic sources in the development of his own spiritual teaching.     

Pilgrimage growth in the modern world: Meanings and implications

This article examines the contemporary growth of pilgrimages. Examples are provided from variety of traditions and parts of the world, from Japan to Europe, with particular attention paid to the Shikoku and Santiago de Compostela pilgrimages that have experienced extensive growth in recent years. It also draws attention to the growing number of new pilgrimage sites that are not associated with any specific religious traditions or that have ‘New Age’ associations. While some of the factors accounting for this growth involve continuities from past eras, there are also specifically modern factors. Also considered in this article is how some modern pilgrims appear to repudiate organised religion even while visiting sites normally associated with established religious traditions. Rather than implying some form of religious revival, contemporary pilgrimage growth may, then, be seen as evidence of an increasing turn away from religion as an organised entity.     

Toward a New Geography of Hasidism

The geography of Hasidism has long been one of the most contentious issues in the history of the movement. This article represents an attempt to free hasidic geography from outmoded preconceptions by proposing a new conceptualization of the hasidic leadership and its following in Eastern Europe. Based on an original, extensive database of hasidic centers, the authors drew five maps in sequence showing the development of Hasidism from its inception to the Holocaust. The five periods into which the database is divided are demarcated by four historically significant landmarks: the years 1772, 1815, 1867, and 1914. The article offers some possible interpretations of the maps, and draws a number of conclusions arising from them. The authors examine the dynamics and tendencies of the expansion of the movement within geographical frameworks, including the shift of hasidic centers from Podolia and Volhynia in the eighteenth century to Galicia and the southeastern provinces of Congress Poland in the nineteenth century, and subsequently to Hungary and Romania in the twentieth century; hasidic penetration into Jewish Eastern Europe, reaching its peak in the period between 1815 and 1867; and the metropolization of the hasidic leadership after 1914. The article also analyzes the patterns of concentration and diffusion of the hasidic leadership, and the impact of political factors upon these parameters.     

Crisis and authority in early modern Ashkenaz

The social and intellectual foundations of medieval Judaism were shaken by a series of developments that included the invention of printing, advances in scientific knowledge, humanism, and the commercial revolution. In early modern Ashkenaz, the ensuing crisis centered on questions of ritual transmission and leadership. Minhagbücher composed in seventeenth-century Worms and Frankfurt urged the preservation and reinstatement of medieval customs relating to synagogue worship and rituals practiced in the home, while in some cases newer customs were also incorporated. However, the writings of Rabbi Ya’ir ?ayyim Bacharach were more far-reaching in response to the crisis of authority, as is evident in his forthright independence in matters of ritual and law. Customs could be considered authentic, in his view, provided they were textually based, were proven to be historically reliable, and enjoyed popular consent. His decision to consult kabbalistic sources—a departure from the resistance Kabbalah had encountered in early modern Ashkenaz—rested in part on the theological appeal of mysticism. Reflecting contemporary political philosophy and jurisprudence, Bacharach’s unequivocal endorsement of lay communal authority hinged on its elected status and on the legitimacy of law founded on principles of equity and justice.     

An examination of the new age movement: Who is involved and what constitutes its spirituality

Through substantial new quantitative research, I have found that participants of the New Age Movement are not young and not especially well‐off, but tend to be middle‐aged or older, and are represented throughout the entire economic spectrum. Moreover, their spirituality encompasses a wide variety of influences drawn from all religious traditions and spiritual concerns. While a great deal of social and spiritual common focus seems to exist in the Movement as a whole, my findings show that there is no one specific type of person who might be considered as being particularly active in the New Age. Furthermore, because of the wide variety of spiritual influences and the individual nature of participants’ spiritual quests, there does not appear to be a strong leaning to any one type of spirituality from which a more formalised New Age religious institution might arise. Through this new research, many claims about who is involved in the New Age Movement and what form their spirituality might take have been reviewed and I demonstrate that there are sizeable inaccuracies among the reports of some commentators.     

The Postsecular Turn in Education: Lessons from the Mindfulness Movement and the Revival of Confucian Academies

It is part of a global trend today that new relationships are being forged between religion and society, between spirituality and materiality, giving rise to announcements that we live in a ‘postsecular’ or ‘desecularized’ world. Taking up two educational movements, the mindfulness movement in the West and the revival of Confucian education in China, this paper examines what and how postsecular orientations and sensibilities penetrate educational discourses and practices in different cultural contexts. We compare the two movements to reveal a new quality of hybrid modernization in that they react, in different ways, to certain pathologies that are identified as consequences of secular modernity. Burnout syndrome, the sense of a spiritual void, but also the loss of a spiritual and cultural identity are being perceived as correlating to a one-sided push towards a modernity that emphasizes secular rationalization over mindfulness and Westernization over cultural particularity. The two case studies mark a critical insight on the present condition and limits of secularism and highlights the ongoing negotiations of values and modes of self-cultivation in schools. In an increasingly pluralistic world, the entanglement of the secular, spiritual, religious and wisdom traditions provides the opportunity to rethink education as a creative realm and an impossible possibility to re-engage the minds and lives of those in the hybrid pedagogical time.     

Developments in Spiritual Care of the Dying

Care of the dying is likely to be a useful indicator of trends in Christianity, a religion which for centuries has been deeply concerned with the problem of death. The article identifies three approaches to the spiritual dimension in contemporary terminal care—a religious approach, an ecclesiastical approach and an approach that identifies the spiritual as the search for meaning. Though the ecclesiastical approach dominates practice, the ‘meaning’ approach is becoming fashionable and represents a highly individualized, postmodern variety of religion with similarities to the New Age—a surprising conjunction in those hospices with a Christian foundation.     

The self and the soul

This paper explores the elusive and esoteric concepts of self and soul. After examining the psychological concept of self, as differentiated from ego, the authors present a unified theory of psychological, psychoanalytical and spiritual conceptualizations in light of Kabbalah, the Jewish mystical tradition. We suggest that understanding the self system (whether in object relations, intersubjective or interpersonal terms) is enhanced by the framework found in the Jewish mystical literature.     

Does the counter-cultural character of new age persist? Investigating social and political attitudes of new age followers

From its beginnings in the 1960s up to the present, the New Age movement has undergone considerable change. Originally, it was a counter-cultural movement, interacting with other counter-cultural movements of that time, such as the ecology, hippie, and commune movements. During the last decades, spiritual and esoteric methods have been popularised and commercialised by an expanding market of literature and workshops. This has made New Age a socially accepted phenomenon and it has thus lost much of its anti-modernist and culture-critical character. In this article, I will show by means of quantitative empirical analyses that in spite of the transformations, the affinity between New Age activism and culture-critical attitudes persists to a certain degree. This is particularly the case for persons aiming at self-perfection by means of spiritual exercises and alternative health methods. Among persons who are primarily interested in esoteric methods, such as astrology and Tarot cards, hedonistic and authoritarian attitudes are, however, more widespread.