Individual Differences in Working Memory Abilities in Healthy Adults

The goal of this study was to understand the role of individual characteristics such as age, gender and education of healthy adults on working memory abilities, as conceptualized in the central executive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketchpad. The sample comprised 302 adults aged from 18 to 65 with different educational backgrounds. Participants were submitted to a protocol of established neuropsychological tests that were selected to assess the central executive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketchpad. The results revealed that these factors influenced working memory abilities differentially. Education level influenced all the three components in the same direction. Individuals with higher academic qualifications have better performance in tests assessing the central executive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketchpad, whereas age affected performance in the task evaluating the central executive. Age and gender also influenced the performance in tasks related to visuospatial sketchpad in the sense that younger individuals or men reveal better visual and spatial abilities as conceptualized in the visuospatial sketchpad.     

Trait anxiety,visuospatial processing,and working memory

This experiment assessed the components of Baddeley's working memory system impaired by anxiety during performance of the Corsi Blocks Test. The Corsi task was performed concurrently with different secondary tasks (i.e., articulatory suppression; counting backwards; spatial tapping; simple tapping). Results showed Corsi performance depended mainly on the central executive and visuospatial sketchpad components of working memory. Adverse effects of trait anxiety on the Corsi task were observed on the central executive but not on the phonological loop or the visuospatial sketchpad. These effects were not mediated by state anxiety. The findings indicate for the first time that trait anxiety impairs central executive functioning on a nonverbal task, and that anxiety does not impair functioning of the “slave” systems (i.e., phonological loop; visuospatial sketchpad). Theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.     

Cognitive predictors of achievement growth in mathematics: a 5-year longitudinal study

The study's goal was to identify the beginning of 1st grade quantitative competencies that predict mathematics achievement start point and growth through 5th grade. Measures of number, counting, and arithmetic competencies were administered in early 1st grade and used to predict mathematics achievement through 5th (n = 177), while controlling for intelligence, working memory, and processing speed. Multilevel models revealed intelligence and processing speed, and the central executive component of working memory predicted achievement or achievement growth in mathematics and, as a contrast domain, word reading. The phonological loop was uniquely predictive of word reading and the visuospatial sketch pad of mathematics. Early fluency in processing and manipulating numerical set size and Arabic numerals, accurate use of sophisticated counting procedures for solving addition problems, and accuracy in making placements on a mathematical number line were uniquely predictive of mathematics achievement. Use of memory-based processes to solve addition problems predicted mathematics and reading achievement but in different ways. The results identify the early quantitative competencies that uniquely contribute to mathematics learning.     

数学学业不良初中生的工作记忆特点：领域普遍性还是特殊性?

研究选取上海111名(男生48名, 女生63名, 平均年龄11.97岁)初中学生(数学学业不良学生55名与数学学业优秀学生56名), 根据国家数学课程标准, 将数学划分为数与代数、空间与几何两部分, 又从空间与几何领域中选取初一数学学业知识点—— 轴对称和中心对称图形, 分析在不同内容知识领域的解答过程中所涉及的工作记忆成分。结果发现：(1)数与代数学习需要中央执行系统、视觉-空间模板、语音环路三个成分的共同作用; 空间与几何学习主要受到视觉-空间模板和中央执行系统的影响, 但不存在语音环路的影响。(2)对轴对称与中心对称图形任务的成绩影响最大的是视觉-空间模板, 其次是中央执行系统, 语音环路对该任务作用不明显。两个研究说明工作记忆在初中不同年级的各类数学学业任务中具有不同的作用, 中央执行系统和视觉-空间模板相对更具有普遍性作用, 语音环路具有特殊性作用, 并且随着年龄增高, 视觉－空间模板对数学学业任务的作用更为突显。     

High-performers use the phonological loop less to process mental arithmetic during working memory tasks

This study investigated the effects of three working memory components—the central executive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketchpad—on performance differences in complex mental arithmetic between individuals. Using the dual-task method, we examined how performance during two-digit addition was affected by load on the central executive (random tapping condition), phonological loop (articulatory suppression condition), and visuospatial sketchpad (spatial tapping condition) compared to that under no load (control condition) in high- and low-performers of complex mental arithmetic in Experiment 1. Low-performers showed an increase in errors under the random tapping and articulatory suppression conditions, whereas high-performers showed an increase of errors only under the random tapping condition. In Experiment 2, we conducted similar experiments on only the high-performers but used a shorter presentation time of each number. We found the same pattern for performing complex mental arithmetic as seen in Experiment 1. These results indicate that high-performers might reduce their dependence on the phonological loop, because the central executive enables them to choose a strategy in which they use less working memory capacity.     

数学学习困难与工作记忆关系研究的现状与前瞻

工作记忆是一种对信息进行暂时加工和贮存的能量有限的记忆系统,在许多复杂的认知活动中起重要作用,工作记忆缺陷是造成数学学习困难的根本原因。数学学习困难儿童都存在视觉空间模板、语音回路以及中央执行器功能等方面的缺陷,工作记忆的各成分对数学困难者的影响不同。今后研究将以整体的、发展的视角,不断改进研究方法,将行为研究和神经加工机制研究相结合。     

Loss of Financial Capacity in Alzheimer's Disease: The Role of Working Memory

Recent research has demonstrated that loss of financial capacity is a common consequence of Alzheimer's disease (AD). While progressive cognitive decline is a defining feature of AD, the relationship between such decline and loss of financial capacity in AD remains unclear. Working memory may be strongly associated with financial abilities, as many financial tasks require temporary storage and manipulation of numerical and other data. The present study examined the relationship between financial capacity and working memory in AD patients. Participants included 20 AD patients and 23 cognitively intact older controls. Working memory was conceptualized using Baddeley and colleagues' model, which posits that the three components of the working memory system are the visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, and central executive system. The present study examined only the latter two components of working memory. Each participant was administered the Financial Capacity Instrument (FCI), an instrument that directly assesses eight domains of financial activity, and the WAIS-III Working Memory subtests (Digit Span, Arithmetic, Letter–Number Sequencing). AD patients as a group performed significantly below controls on the FCI Total Score and on each of the eight FCI domains and working memory subtests. Within the AD group, measures of the central executive component of working memory (WAIS-III Digits Backward, Arithmetic, and Letter-Number Sequencing tests) showed strong correlations with the FCI domains of basic monetary skills, checkbook management, bank statement management, and bill payment and FCI total score, while a measure of the phonological loop component of working memory (WAIS-III Digits Forward) was not significantly correlated with any FCI domains or with the FCI total score. The results suggest that the multiple domains of financial capacity are primarily correlated with the central executive component of working memory.     

Processing efficiency theory in children: working memory as a mediator between trait anxiety and academic performance

Working memory skills are positively associated with academic performance. In contrast, high levels of trait anxiety are linked with educational underachievement. Based on Eysenck and Calvo's (1992) processing efficiency theory (PET), the present study investigated whether associations between anxiety and educational achievement were mediated via poor working memory performance. Fifty children aged 11-12 years completed verbal (backwards digit span; tapping the phonological store/central executive) and spatial (Corsi blocks; tapping the visuospatial sketchpad/central executive) working memory tasks. Trait anxiety was measured using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children. Academic performance was assessed using school administered tests of reasoning (Cognitive Abilities Test) and attainment (Standard Assessment Tests). The results showed that the association between trait anxiety and academic performance was significantly mediated by verbal working memory for three of the six academic performance measures (math, quantitative and non-verbal reasoning). Spatial working memory did not significantly mediate the relationship between trait anxiety and academic performance. On average verbal working memory accounted for 51% of the association between trait anxiety and academic performance, while spatial working memory only accounted for 9%. The findings indicate that PET is a useful framework to assess the impact of children's anxiety on educational achievement.     

数学焦虑对工作记忆子系统及数学心算的影响分析

本研究从工作记忆容量的角度入手,探讨数学焦虑对工作记忆子系统及数学心算成绩的影响,并寻求三者之间关系的理论解释。本研究为3×2×2混合实验设计,即三组被试（高、中、低数学焦虑组）、工作记忆两个子系统（言语工作记忆和视空间工作记忆）和两种数学心算任务难度,并记录数学心算的反应时和正确率作为其成绩指标。结果表明在要求较高工作记忆容量的数学心算任务中,数学焦虑通过言语工作记忆和视空间工作记忆都会对数学心算成绩产生影响,其中视空间工作记忆是数学焦虑与复杂数学心算反应时之间的中介变量。     

L’entraînement de la mémoire de travail par le programme Cogmed et le TDAH

IntroductionAttention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a prevalent neurodevelopmental disorder. Inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity are key symptoms of ADHD. It is typically associated with working memory deficits at the cognitive level. For this reason, interventions have been designed to train working memory in ADHD. Currently, Cogmed Working Memory Training program is the most commonly used and studied program in clinical practice and research. This program is proposed as an intervention for ADHD that targets working memory deficits with specific exercises through intensive training sessions.ObjectivesThe goal of this literature review is to examine the effects of the Cogmed program in children and adolescents with ADHD on working memory, inhibition, non-verbal reasoning, attention functioning, ADHD symptoms and academic achievement. All existing studies on the subject that included a control group (n = 8) are reviewed.ResultsIt is clear from most studies that Cogmed training program increases and verbal and visuospatial working memory (or the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad in Baddeley's model (1986, 2007), among ADHD participants. However, transfer of learning is not demonstrated on other components of working memory that are not directly targeted by the program such as the central executive described in Baddeley's model or the secondary memory defined by Unsworth & Engle (2007). With regards to far transfer measures, results are controversial for inhibition, non-verbal reasoning, ADHD symptoms reported by parents, and reading abilities. No improvement is demonstrated for attentional capacities, ADHD symptoms reported by teachers and mathematic reasoning.ConclusionCogmed training improves verbal and visuospatial working memory, two cognitive functions that play an important role in ADHD. However, Cogmed's exercises need to be modified in order to train more complex working memory components such as the central executive (Baddeley, 1986, 2007) and the secondary memory (Unsworth & Engle, 2007), which are more impaired in ADHD than the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad. Another approach would be to design programs that can tackle a larger range of cognitive functions that are impaired in ADHD (e.g., inhibition). In future, studies evaluating such modified programs, direct observation instruments that are more sensitive to short-term changes need to be included. Follow-up measures should also be systematically included.     

6-9岁儿童工作记忆的发展研究

以Baddeley工作记忆模型为基础考察儿童语音环路、视觉空间模板、中央执行的发展及其与复杂广度的关系。225名6-9岁被试完成9个任务,分别测量听力广度及工作记忆三个子系统的功能。发现工作记忆各个子成分的功能在6-9岁期间发展速度不同;中央执行与语音环路和视觉空间模板的联系随年龄增长加强;结构方程模型分析发现中央执行和语音环路功能对儿童听力广度都有显著的直接影响,表明言语复杂广度任务既涉及中央执行功能也涉及语音环路的存贮功能。     

Neuroanatomical correlates of processing in visual and visuospatial working memory

Working memory is traditionally seen as being organised in a modular way with a central executive orchestrating at least two slave systems (phonological loop and visuospatial sketch pad). Neuroanatomical correlates of the visual and visuospatial subsystems and the central executive are discussed in this article. A series of experiments are presented yielding evidence for a differentiation into active and passive processing in working memory as well as their neuroanatomical correlates in the prefrontal cortex. Data, yielding evidence for an interaction and separation of visual and visuospatial working memory are presented and discussed. Further results are presented which suggest a convergence of these two systems with increasing working memory demands. The discussed findings will give new insight in the organisation of visual and visuospatial working memory on the anatomical level.     

Working Memory Deficits in Boys with Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): The Contribution of Central Executive and Subsystem Processes

The current study investigated contradictory findings from recent experimental and meta-analytic studies concerning working memory deficits in ADHD. Working memory refers to the cognitive ability to temporarily store and mentally manipulate limited amounts of information for use in guiding behavior. Phonological (verbal) and visuospatial (nonverbal) working memory were assessed across four memory load conditions in 23 boys (12 ADHD, 11 typically developing) using tasks based on Baddeley's (Working memory, thought, and action, Oxford University Press, New York, 2007) working memory model. The model posits separate phonological and visuospatial storage and rehearsal components that are controlled by a single attentional controller (CE: central executive). A latent variable approach was used to partial task performance related to three variables of interest: phonological buffer/rehearsal loop, visuospatial buffer/rehearsal loop, and the CE attentional controller. ADHD-related working memory deficits were apparent across all three cognitive systems--with the largest magnitude of deficits apparent in the CE--even after controlling for reading speed, nonverbal visual encoding, age, IQ, and SES.     

儿童早期工作记忆与数学学习的关系

以往研究认为工作记忆对数学学习很重要,但是以往工作记忆和早期数学学习的关系研究结果并不一致。本研究运用元分析的方法回顾了33篇独立研究,含307项相关系数作为效应值,总被试量为42423名平均年龄3~8岁的儿童,旨在探讨工作记忆的3个主成分PL(语音回路)、VSSP(视觉空间画板)、CE(中央执行)与数学学习不同方面之间的关系,以及样本年龄对工作记忆和数学学习相关程度的调节作用。结果显示:工作记忆与数学学习确实存在强相关,工作记忆子成分中,CE与数学学习平均相关的程度最强。并且,CE与数学学习不同方面之间的相关程度不存在显著差异,PL、VSSP与数运算的相关程度比数概念更强,存在显著差异。样本年龄对CE、PL与数学学习之间相关关系存在显著调节作用,对VSSP与数学学习之间的相关关系不存在显著调节作用。文献梳理还发现,以往研究对数学学习的考察,大都聚焦数概念、数运算的内容,未来研究需要关注几何与空间、测量等方面内容。     

工作记忆对类比推理的影响

该实验采用2(类比推理类型)×6(组别)双因素实验设计来探讨工作记忆与类比推理之间的关系,尤其关注工作记忆的各个子成分对类比推理的影响。控制组的被试只需完成类比推理测验,而实验组的被试是在双任务的条件下进行实验。结果表明,工作记忆是影响类比推理的一个重要因素。在图形类比推理中,主要有视空间模板中的空间成分,语音回路中的发音成分以及中央执行器的参与;在言语类比推理中,则是视空间模板中的空间成分起主要作用。     

工作记忆对时间加工的影响

非时间信息加工与时间加工的关系是复杂的, 存在双向干扰或单向干扰, 结果的不一致与任务所需的注意资源及工作记忆都有关。工作记忆的中央执行系统在时间加工中起主要作用, 同时进行的非时间任务对中央执行功能的需求越多, 两种任务之间的干扰程度越大。语言环和视空间模板对时间加工的影响与非时间信息的类型有关。工作记忆作为一个整体以工作记忆容量为指标, 计时成绩也表现出与工作记忆容量有关的年龄、智力等方面的差异。时间加工和工作记忆在额叶、顶叶、基底神经节等皮质存在共同的神经机制。未来应该丰富工作记忆的研究内容, 结合时间加工的分段性探讨工作记忆影响时间加工的具体进程及神经机制, 并力求在应用方面取得一定的成果。     

Associations between evaluation anxiety,cognitive interference and performance on working memory tasks

According to Cognitive Interference Theory, evaluation anxiety leads to increased negative off‐task self‐dialogue which then results in diminished cognitive performance. Given that negative off‐task self‐dialogue is primarily verbal, the phonological loop and central executive components of the working memory system should be most affected by evaluation anxiety. Eighty‐eight participants were randomly assigned to receive evaluation anxiety inducing instructions or supportive instructions prior to administration of three tests (Digit Span, Visual Memory Span, and StroopColour‐Word) that measured the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and central executive components of working memory. Measures of evaluation anxiety and negative off‐task self‐dialogue were obtained during and after testing. Results showed that participants receiving anxiety inducing instructions reported significantly more evaluation anxiety and off‐task self‐dialogue. They also had significantly lower performance on the Digit Span Test and the StroopColour‐Word Test. Negative off‐task self‐dialogue also mediated the relationship between evaluation anxiety and performance on the Digit Span Test. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

工作记忆模型的第四个组成部分——情景缓冲器

工作记忆的提出迄今已有30多年的历史了,随着实验方法和技术的发展对工作记忆的研究取得了很大的突破,但在很多问题上仍存在争议,特别是在工作记忆与长时记忆、语音回路与视空间模板的联结上的解释还有许多不足.基于此,Baddeley于2000年提出了工作记忆模型的第四个组成部分--情景缓冲器(episodic buffer).情景缓冲器是一个容量有限的暂时贮存多种编码信息的装置,它受中央执行系统的控制,而中央执行系统能够通过意识觉察从存贮中提取信息,反映信息,在必要的时候能够修正信息.新的工作记忆模型更加完整,更加有解释力.     

工作记忆成分的年龄相关差异对算术策略运用的预测效应

采用选择/无选范式,借助工作记忆成套测验,在两位数乘法估算问题中探讨了工作记忆系统各成分对不同年龄段个体算术策略运用的预测效应。结果显示:(1)工作记忆的不同成分与年龄之间存在明显的相关。表现为,除视空模板成分外,其他各成分得分随着年龄增长而呈现上升趋势;(2)估算策略运用中,年龄与策略选择显著相关,表现为随着年龄增长,策略选择表现明显提高;(3)估算策略运用中,不同年龄个体的工作记忆不同成分和策略选择表现出不同的联系,中央执行均显示出显著的预测效应,语音环路和视空模板的预测效应均不显著。不同年龄个体的工作记忆不同成分对策略执行的预测效应均不显著。上述发现对于深刻理解工作记忆系统在算术认知策略运用中的作用机制具有重要理论含义。     

肢体运动信息如何在工作记忆中存储?

肢体运动(空间位置运动与身体模式运动)是个体与环境交互作用的重要途径。以往行为学和脑成像研究分别探讨了空间位置运动信息和身体模式运动信息的工作记忆存储问题, 发现两种肢体运动信息的存储均独立于语音环、视空间画板的视觉子系统, 需要视空间画板的空间子系统的参与; 两种肢体运动信息激活的脑区(运动相关皮层)独立于语音环、视空间画板的视觉子系统和空间子系统, 并存在差异。这表明, 现有的工作记忆多成分模型不能完全解释肢体运动信息的存储。据此可推论, 工作记忆系统中可能存在一个负责处理肢体运动信息的“肢体运动系统”, 其隶属于视空间画板, 与视觉子系统和空间子系统并存; 其激活脑区因肢体运动的不同而存在差异。