Research Mentoring and Women in Clinical Psychology

The main question explored in this study is whether a woman's choice to do research during her career as a clinical psychologist is associated with having had a research mentor. A sample of 616 women, all members of the American Psychological Association holding a Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology, completed a survey about their experience with a research mentor. The data show that research mentoring is positively related to a woman in clinical psychology doing research and whether she, in turn, becomes a research mentor for others. The responses of the participants suggest that a model of mentoring that involves relevant training and practical experience in research may increase the likelihood that female clinical psychologists will choose to do research as part of their careers.     

The Mentoring Relationship Challenges Scale: The impact of mentoring stage, type, and gender

The current study investigated the role of relational challenges as reported by 309 protégés in various stages and types of mentoring relationships. The Mentoring Relationship Challenges Scale (MRCS) was newly constructed using the results of an earlier qualitative study (Ensher & Murphy, 2005). The scale measured three factors of relational challenges which were: Demonstrating Commitment and Resilience, Measuring Up to a Mentor's Standards, and Career Goal and Risk Orientation. The results demonstrated that with respect to mentoring stages, those protégés in the beginning stages of their relationships reported experiencing significantly fewer challenges related to Demonstrating Commitment and Resilience than those in the mature or ending stages of the relationship. Also, it was found that the type of mentoring relationship (traditional, step-ahead, or peer) affected the prevalence of the three types of challenges. Protégés in peer relationships reported significantly fewer of all three types of challenges than those in step-ahead or traditional relationships. However, contrary to predictions, there were no significant differences found between those in informal versus those in formal mentoring relationships. As expected, protégé and mentor gender interacted significantly. Female protégés reported experiencing significantly fewer challenges related to the factor of Measuring Up to a Mentor's Standards, than did male protégés. Also, female protégés reported experiencing a significantly higher degree of relational challenges related to Career Goal and Risk Orientation from their male mentors than from their female mentors. Finally, after controlling for perceptions of career and psychosocial support for protégés in traditional mentoring relationships, two of the three relational challenges factors remained significant and explained a significant amount of variance in overall satisfaction with the mentoring relationship. This suggests that relational challenges, at least for traditional mentoring relationships, serve as an important mechanism to impact overall relationship satisfaction.     

Mentoring and Psychological Contract Breach

Purpose

Mentoring and psychological contracts are related and important organizationally based social exchange relationships. Research indicates that social support from internal mentors might buffer the negative effects of psychological contract breach (PCB), but less is known about the possible negative influence that mentors might have on psychological contracts. This study investigates protégés' perceptions of their mentors?? failure to fulfill mentoring obligations and protégés?? perceptions of PCB. Because either the formality of the mentoring relationship or the supervisory status of the mentor might serve as additional signals of the mentor??s status as an organizational agent, and, therefore, exacerbate the negative association between mentoring breach and PCB, both are investigated as potential moderating variables.

Design/Methodology/Approach

A sample of 144 protégés from various occupations completed a questionnaire assessing mentoring breach, PCB, job satisfaction and organizational commitment.

Findings

Results indicate the relations between mentoring breach and the outcome variables of interest were mediated by PCB, and that the relation between mentoring breach and PCB is stronger in supervisory mentoring relationships. A similar result was expected, but not confirmed, for formal mentoring relationships.

Implications

The current study provides evidence that the actions (or inactions) of mentors contribute to PCB and related negative outcomes. Such knowledge might encourage organizations to provide training to potential mentors in managing the mentoring relationship to minimize the probability of mentoring breach.

Originality Value

The current study is the first to examine the potential negative effect that mentoring relationships might have on protégé psychological contracts.     

The Developmental Mentoring Relationship Between Academic Women

This exploratory study focused on the needs and attributes that female doctoral students, during their academic and professional careers, seek in mentoring relationships with female faculty. Two domains—personal and professional—were identified as essential components in the developmental mentoring relationship. As a result, the Rheineck Mentoring Model was created.     

Preparing Women for Baptist Church Leadership: Mentoring Impact on Beliefs and Practices of Female Ministers

Effective leadership is important in all organizations, and the Baptist church is no exception. Strong spiritual leaders can make a difference in the life of the institution and its members. Today, a growing number of African American women are answering the call to the Baptist church ministry; but the preparation, training, and mentoring are often insufficient. Ten African American women were interviewed to learn about their backgrounds, education, support, and roles as Baptist ministers in the church to discover perceptions of themselves as teachers, preachers, counselors, and leaders in the church and how they were trained and prepared to assume their leadership roles. Feminist and “servant leadership” theory provided the underpinning of this study. Research questions for study were: (1) In what ways did being mentored, or not, affect African American women ministers' perceptions of their effectiveness in ministry? (2) What relationship/role, if any, do mentors have in preparing these ministers to advance to a senior position of leadership within the Baptist Church? Major findings were that few ministers were willing to serve as mentors, although mentoring is vital for the growth in the position. Instead, women ministers were found to be self-motivated and personally inspired. Results also included role analysis of women ministers as teachers, preachers, counselors, and as mentors themselves. Sadly, the study found that in some cases women were not supporting other women in the Baptist church. Thus, being a woman in ministry is extremely challenging and this process is complicated even more when the minister is an African American woman.     

Formal Mentoring in Military Academies

We examined the relationship between mentoring functions and protégé outcomes in formal mentoring relationships in military academies. A total of 424 (listed as 424 under Method) freshmen and 659 senior cadets from six different military academies participated in the survey. Results of hierarchical multiple regression analyses suggest that career mentoring was positively related to mentor satisfaction and participants' provision of career mentoring to their protégés. Surprisingly, career mentoring was negatively related to freshmen's commitment to a military career. We found that psychosocial mentoring was positively related to mentor satisfaction and participants' commitment to a military career, leadership competency, and provision of psychosocial mentoring to their protégés. Furthermore, psychological mentoring was negatively related to stress. We discuss these findings and their implications for mentoring research and practices in the military.     

Gender-Based Preferential Selection: Perceptions of Injustice and Empathy of Deprivation

Study 1 examined fairness perceptions about gender-based selection. Using a 2 × 3 × 4 (sample × justification × merit discrepancy) between-subjects design, and a scenario approach involving a hypothetical selection case, results showed that (1) males and females perceived gender-based selection as unfair and that the level of perceived unfairness was directly related to the size of discrepancy in merits between the female appointee and the rejected male candidate, (2) the provision of either an ethical or a legislative justification exacerbated perceptions of injustice. To reframe the findings in the context of relative deprivation theory, study 2 repeated study 1 with a professional sample as well as both measures of fairness perceptions and feelings of deprivation. Results on fairness perceptions replicated those of study 1. Findings concerning deprivation included: (1) gender-based selection induced a similar level of feeling (or empathy) of deprivation among male and female professionals; (2) the level of felt deprivation was not related to the size of merit discrepancy; (3) the provision of either form of justification further intensified feelings (or empathy) of deprivation. The implications were discussed within the framework of relative deprivation theory.     

Factors Related to Mentor Reports of Mentoring Functions Provided: Gender and Relational Characteristics

In this study we examined the relationship between mentor gender, protégé gender, mentorship characteristics (e.g., mentorship type, mentorship duration, mentor experience), and mentoring functions provided as reported by mentors. Drawing on research regarding diversified mentorships and interpersonal relationships, we proposed that mentoring effectiveness would vary as a function of the gender of the mentorship participants and the characteristics of the relationship. As hypothesized, several interesting gender differences emerged from the data. Male mentors reported providing more career mentoring to their protégés, whereas female mentors reported providing more psychosocial mentoring. Contrary to expectations, mentors in informal mentorships did not report providing more mentoring than did mentors in formal mentorships. The findings demonstrate the importance of examining mentoring from the perspective of the mentor.     

Withholding inputs in team contexts: member composition, interaction processes, evaluation structure, and social loafing

Social loafing was observed as a naturally occurring process in project teams of students working together for 3-4 months. The authors assessed the contributions that member composition (i.e., relational dissimilarity and knowledge, skills, and abilities; KSAs), perceptions of the team's interaction processes (i.e., dispensability and the fairness of the decision-making procedures), and the team's evaluation structure (i.e., identifiability) make toward understanding loafing behavior. Identifiability moderated the impact of dispensability on loafing but not the impact of fairness on loafing. Perceptions of fairness were negatively related to the extent that participants loafed within their team. Specific aspects of relational dissimilarity were positively associated with perceptions of dispensability and negatively associated with perceptions of fairness, whereas KSAs were negatively associated with perceptions of dispensability.     

Due process model of procedural justice in performance appraisal: promotion versus termination scenarios

In a laboratory study, 318 student participants (148 male, 169 female, and one who did not report sex; M age 25.0, SD = 6.0) in introductory organizational behavior classes responded to scenarios in which performance appraisal resulted in either employee promotion or termination. Each scenario had varying levels of three procedural justice criteria for performance appraisal. For both promotion and termination outcomes, analysis showed that, as the number of criteria increased, perceptions of procedural fairness increased. A comparison between the two outcomes showed that perceptions of fairness were significantly stronger for the promotion outcome than for termination.     

Culturally Congruent Mentoring: Predicting Asian American Student Participation Using the Theory of Reasoned Action1

Predictors of Asian American first‐year college students’ intention to participate in a culturally congruent mentoring program was empirically documented using Ajzen and Fishbein's (1980) theory of reasoned action (TRA). Intention to participate was predicted by the belief that participation eases transition to college. Also, attitude toward participation was positively related to students’ beliefs that participation will strengthen ethnic identity and combat model‐minority myth. With 78% of students who intended to participate, results suggest that Asian American college students need programming that addresses issues as first‐year college students and those related to their cultural experience. The use of the TRA to better understand issues related to peer mentoring is illuminated. Wider implications for implementing culturally congruent mentoring programs in educational settings are discussed.     

The Role of School-based Group Mentoring in Promoting Resilience among Vulnerable High School Students

This study examined the role of participation in a year-long school-based group mentoring program, Project Arrive (PA), on increasing resilience during the first year of high school among students identified as being at high risk for school dropout. Participants were 114, ninth grade students taking part in one of 32 PA mentoring groups, and 71 statistically matched comparison students (53% male, 75% eligible for free/reduced-price lunch, 62% Latinx). Using a propensity score with inverse probability of treatment weighting (IPTW) to reduce selection bias, and a multi-level model to account for non-independence of data within mentoring groups, we examined changes from pre-test to program exit on seven external resilience resources (developmental supports and opportunities) and four internal resilience assets (personal strengths). At program exit, PA participants had higher adjusted means than comparisons on six external resources, including school support, school belonging, school meaningful participation, peer caring relationships, prosocial peers, and home meaningful participation. PA participants also had higher adjusted means on one internal asset, problem solving. Results point to the promise of group mentoring as an approach for increasing resilience among academically vulnerable adolescents.     

Investigating Occupational Stress,Racial Identity,and Mentoring for African American Women in Health Care

This study examined the influence of racial identity and mentoring experiences on occupational stress among African American women in health care (N = 76). The women were surveyed about their occupational stress (role stress, psychological strain, and personal resources), racial identity, demographic information, and mentoring experiences. Results indicated that racial identity was negatively related to role stress and psychological strain, and level of education was closely related to personal resources. Mentoring was not found to have a significant impact on occupational stress as hypothesized. The implications for enhancing occupational satisfaction were discussed in relation to advocacy for career development professionals.     

Women in Federal Law Enforcement: The Role of Gender Role Orientations and Sexual Orientation in Mentoring

Women have always been under-represented in United States’ law enforcement relative to the population, but women are successful law enforcement officers who bring important skills to the field. Thus, understanding work experiences and the barriers female law enforcement officers face is critical in retaining and promoting women in the field. However, law enforcement is also a masculine, male-dominated occupation causing even greater occupational stress to women through discrimination, exclusion, and harassment (Kakar 2002). The goal of this study was to analyze the relationships among gender role orientations (masculinity and femininity), sexual orientation, and mentoring for female sworn federal law enforcement officers throughout the United States. It was hypothesized that (1) masculine female officers would receive more mentoring, (2) low femininity would enhance masculinity’s effect, (3) sexual minorities would receive less mentoring, negating the beneficial effects of masculinity when the interaction is taken into account, and last, (4) the 3-way interaction between masculinity, femininity, and sexual orientation would uniquely impact mentoring. In the current sample, masculinity was found to positively relate to career mentoring and role modeling whereas sexual orientation was negatively related to career mentoring. The three-way interaction between masculinity, femininity, and sexual orientation also significantly related to career mentoring and role modeling; implications and future directions are discussed.     

Mentoring college-age women: a relational approach

Despite the popularity of mentoring programs, the relational dimension of mentoring has not been elucidated. Traditional conceptions of mentoring may exclude factors that are particularly important for women and girls, thus limiting the efficacy of mentoring programs for female adolescents. We suggest that the presence of relational qualities in the mentoring relationship (e.g., empathy, engagement, authenticity, and empowerment) strongly influences the success of mentoring in the lives of young women. In this study, we use a promising new measure of mentoring, the Relational Health Index – Mentor, to explore the impact of relational aspects of mentoring in female college students. We found that mentoring relationships high in relational qualities were associated with higher self-esteem and less loneliness.     

Gender Differences in the Perception of Prisoner Abuse

We examined gender stereotypes and perceptions of aggression in 743 US psychology students at a northeastern university in the USA. Participants rated a vignette depicting torture of an Iraqi prisoner by an American soldier in which the gender of prisoner and guard were varied. The results showed that female participants viewed torture more negatively than male participants. Additionally, participants perceived the torture and killing of a female prisoner warranted significant compensation to her family. However, participants perceived violent acts by a male guard to be as serious as for a female guard, suggesting a shift in perceptions of gender role stereotypes. Our findings demonstrate a change in the gender role stereotyping for females in the military and suggest a number of future studies.     

Training and Mentoring of Chemists: A Study of Gender Disparity

This study was conducted to compare women’s and men’s retrospective perceptions of the mentoring they received during their training and career development in chemistry. Participants were 455 graduates (135 women) who received doctoral degrees from 11 top US chemistry programs over a 5-year period (1988–1992). In 2003, graduates completed surveys of undergraduate, graduate, post-doctoral, and initial employment experiences. In line with Social Cognitive Career Theory (Lent et al., Journal of Vocational Behavior 45:79–122, 1994), which posits that perceptions of barriers can affect career decisions, results suggest that women perceived that they received less mentoring than men at the undergraduate, graduate, and post-doctoral levels of training, likely related to gender differences in eventual career success. Possible interventions at the individual and institutional levels are discussed.     

The Role of Formal Mentoring on Business Success and Self-Esteem in Participants of a New Business Start-Up Program

The current study investigated the relationship between career-related mentoring, psychosocial mentoring, business success, and self-esteem in participants of a program that was designed to assist in the establishment of a new business. Seventy-seven protégés and their matched mentors were included in the study. A comparison of mentor and protégé perceptions revealed that mentors considered themselves to provide higher levels of psychosocial support than did the protégés. Protégé perceptions of business success were predicted by the frequency of mentor contact and the level of career-related support provided by their mentor.     

Mentoring Among Women Lawyers1

Considerable controversy exists as to both the nature and efficacy of mentoring among women professionals. As noted by Wrightsman, this controversy persists largely because researchers have failed to use a common scientific definition of the concept. In the present research a survey of existing studies was used to set a more stringent criterion of mentoring than that usually employed. Data were then gathered from a sample of women lawyers in the State of Oregon. Results indicated that those meeting the more stringent criterion perceived themselves as more successful and satisfied in their careers than those not meeting it. Those women who said that they had mentors but who did not meet the criterion reported themselves as less successful and satisfied than those who claimed to have a mentor and met the criterion. These results are seen as demonstrating the value of the more stringent criterion as well as the possible value of true mentors to women professionals.     

Gender’s Role in Misperceptions of Peers’ Sexual Motives

The sexual double standard influences men’s and women’s sexual attitudes and behavior, leading men and women to consider distinct sexual motives, or reasons whether or not to engage in sexual intercourse. The goal of the present paper was to document how the sexual double standard shapes perceptions of peers’ sexual motives. We build on past research by using open-ended questions and measuring perceptions of both same-gender and other-gender peers. The sample included 154 heterosexual college students (50 % female, 49 % European American, 25 % Latino American, 26 % African American) recruited via probability sampling. When we compared perceptions of men’s and women’s sexual motives, we found that participants seemed to rely on the sexual double standard. Participants were more likely to attribute a female-stereotyped motive (e.g., romantic relationship characteristics, feeling “ready”, emotional investment) and less likely to attribute a male-stereotyped motive (“easy”, arousal, physical appearance) to female peers than to male peers. However, when we compared participants’ own motives to perceptions of their peers’ motives, participants overestimated male-stereotyped motives and underestimated female-stereotyped motives in peers, regardless of peer gender, possibly in congruence with stereotypes of hookup culture. These findings demonstrate that, although individuals sometimes rely on the sexual double standard to attribute sexual motives to others, misperceptions of peers’ sexual motives may also be influenced by stereotypes of hookup culture. These misperceptions contribute to pluralistic ignorance that may influence college students’ sexual behaviors.