Acquisition and generalization of instruction following behavior in profoundly retarded individuals

Four profoundly retarded male residents of a state institution learned to comply with the instructions "come here," "stay," and "sit." Acquisition occurred in a special therapy room and instructions were presented in a fixed sequence. All subjects learned to comply with the instructions in the training environment. Testing occurred in the subject's ward dayroom where instructions were presented in a random sequence. Despite dramatic changes in the stimulus conditions associated with the transfer to the testing situation the subjects performed close to their asymptotic level. Three experimentally naive subjects participated in a second experiment which was similar to the first, except that the number of acquisition sessions and the number of trials per session were reduced. The reduction in number of acquisition trials did not appear to affect performance in the testing environment. The possibility of terminating off-task behavior of institutionalized individuals by eliciting previously acquired instruction following behavior was discussed.     

Comparison of selected gait parameters of trainable mentally retarded and nonretarded males

Although there were no significant differences in the single support phase of gait for 6 trainable mentally retarded boys (Mean age 9.6 yr.) and 6 nonretarded boys (Mean age 9.5 yr.), total gait time and time in double support were significantly different for the two groups, supporting previous research which showed gait was was deficient in trainable mentally retarded individuals.     

Independent and social play among profoundly mentally retarded adults: training, maintenance, generalization, and long-term follow-up.

Play skills were taught to eight profoundly mentally retarded adults in two interrelated experiments. In Experiment 1, a multiple baseline across subjects design was used to assess the efficacy of verbal and physical prompts on independent play. In Experiment 2, the same subjects and experimental procedures were used to develop social play. Verbal prompting and graduated physical guidance procedures were found to be effective in substantially increasing independent play in Experiment 1 and social play in Experiment 2. Positive changes were also observed in collateral behaviors. Inappropriate play decreased slightly and stereotypy decreased to very low levels. Social interaction increased substantially in Experiment 2 when social play was targeted but little change was observed in Experiment 1 when only independent play was targeted. Treatment gains were maintained for 26 weeks in Experiment 1 and 10 weeks in Experiment 2. In addition, the treatment gains were generalized across subjects and settings in Experiment 2. Finally, regular follow-up checks showed that independent and social play remained in the repertoire of the subjects for 12 months following the termination of programmed maintenance.     

Influence of item identification on the memory performance of mentally retarded and nonretarded adults

The role of item identification in the memory performance of mentally retarded and nonretarded adults was examined by varying the identification and memory parameters of a sequential same-different task. In Study 1, retarded subjects' identification ability was demonstrated to be less efficient than nonretarded subjects' ability. In Study 2, target duration and interstimulus interval were varied. Memory performance differed between groups, and the memory deficit for retarded subjects was demonstrated to be independent of their identification deficit. The target durations in Study 2 were relatively brief, and in Study 3, the target duration was increased to insure that all subjects could identify the target. Mentally retarded subjects were demonstrated to have a memory deficit. The results were discussed in terms of possible sources of the memory deficit.     

A follow-up developmental study of hypothesis behavior among mentally retarded and nonretarded children

To clarify the roles of IQ and mental age (MA) in hypothesis behavior, MA-matched subjects at three levels of IQ (70, 100, and 130) and three levels of MA ($\text{5}\text{1}\text{2}\text{, 7}\text{1}\text{2}\text{,}\text{and}\text{9}\text{1}\text{2}\text{years}$) received blank-trial discrimination learning problems using procedures designed to discourage position-oriented responding. With position responding discouraged, earlier findings were contradicted in that no hypothesis measure showed a main effect of IQ. This suggest that previously reported IQ group differences in hypothesis behavior may not reflect cognitive deficits inherently linked to low IQ, but instead may reflect the influence of specific methodological factors. The finding and interpretation are consistent with Zigler's (American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1969, 73, 536–556) “developmental” theory of retardation and inconsistent with the general “difference” position. In additional findings, the predictions that subjects at all three MA levels would use hypotheses, and that retarded children from special-education classes would use hypotheses more often than retarded children “mainstreamed” in classes for the nonretarded were confirmed.     

Analysis of fixed-ratio behavior maintained by drug reinforcers.

Behavior maintained by intravenously delivered alfentanil, cocaine, or ketamine was assessed using a fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement. As the dose of each drug was increased, rate of responding also increased up to a maximum. Further increases in dose resulted in decreased response rates (inverted U-shaped curve). An analysis of postreinforcement-pause-time and run-time measures for the ascending limb of the inverted U-shaped functions revealed that behavior was characterized by systematic decreases in both pause time and run time as dose and rate increased. An examination of the descending limb of the dose-response functions revealed that lowered response rates for cocaine and ketamine were correlated with increases in run time and small and inconsistent effects on postreinforcement pause time. Behavior maintained by rate-reducing doses of alfentanil was characterized by lengthened postreinforcement pauses with small increases in run time. These data suggest that at larger doses, drug reinforcers may have unconditioned or direct effects on the behavior that the drug is maintaining, and more important, that the nature of these unconditioned effects depends on the drug that is maintaining behavior.     

The lack of effects of enriched and automated environments on the adaptive and maladaptive behavior of mentally retarded persons

This study addressed the relative effects of repeated exposures to an austere institutional dayroom, a toy enriched dayroom, a PUSH (Play Units for the Severely Handicapped) room that contained automated stimulation devices within a physical terrain, and a modular room that contained wall mounted automated stimulation devices, on the adaptive and maladaptive freeplay behavior of six groups of institutionalized mentally retarded individuals (N = 6 per group). Group One was observed in all four settings, whereas the other five were observed in two or more of the active settings. The results indicated that (1) there were only slight differences in object-directed adaptive behavior when the three active settings were compared to the austere setting, and (2) only the higher functioning subjects (Group Five) displayed consistent individual differences on any of the measures when active settings were compared. None of the comparisons, however, revealed statistically significant effects. This study clearly demonstrates the need for active control conditions, raises questions regarding the relevance of much of the previous research, and suggests that further refinements will be necessary before environments such as those in the present study produce meaningful changes in appropriate environmental interaction in the absence of staff mediation.     

Conditional discrimination in mentally retarded adults: the development of generalized skills.

The development of generalized conditional discrimination skills was examined in adults with retardation. Two subjects with histories of failure to acquire arbitrary matching under trial-and-error procedures were successful under procedures that trained one or more prerequisite skills. The successive discrimination between the sample stimuli was established by training the subjects to name the stimuli. The simultaneous discrimination between the comparison stimuli was established using either (a) standard simple discrimination training with reversals or (b) a procedure in which each of the two sample-comparison relations in the conditional discrimination was presented in blocks of trials, with the size of the blocks decreasing gradually until sample presentation was randomized. The amount of prerequisite training required varied across subjects and across successive conditional discriminations. After acquiring either two or three conditional discriminations with component training, both subjects learned new conditional discriminations under trial-and-error procedures. In general, each successive conditional discrimination was acquired more rapidly. Tests showed that conditional responding had become a generalized skill. Symmetry was shown for almost all trained relations. Symmetry trial samples were ultimately named the same as the stimuli to which they were related in training.     

The role of the clergy in serving the mentally retarded

Conclusion The clergyman, by at times being reflective, supportive, sometimes confrontational, and educative, is uniquely equipped to bring solace and hope to the retarded and their families (to quote Mostrom), recognizing that by providing a ray of hope, a way out, a meaningful answer, he can realistically show both the darkness and light—the truth that this child is also a child of God. In an age in which there is a crisis in moral, ethical, and spiritual values, are not the retarded a magnificent example of ways in which compassion, understanding, and helpfulness can enrich all of our lives? In a letter to me, Mr. Mostrom writes that others can give technical answers, but the clergy can give support essential to the family by walking along side of the retarded and their families, listening, understanding, showing that they care, and so giving strength and encouragement.Charlos C. Borgman, who had been a member of the Board of Trustees, Executive Vice-President, and Treasurer of the Academy of Religion and Mental Health before 1972, became a member of the Board of Directors and Executive Vice-President of the Institutes of Religion and Health after the merging of the Academy into the newly-formed Institutes. His many administrative and advisory services to national and international organizations serving people now include the folowing: American Field Service Scholarships, Inc., Chairman of its International Council; Public Corporation for Mental Health, Special Advisor; Silver Hill Foundation, member of the Board of Managers; the President's Committee on Mental Retardation, Special Advisor.This article is an expansion of an address Mr. Bergman delivered at the Second Pan-American Congress on Mental Retardation held in Panama City, Aust 2 24–29, 1975.