Acute aerobic exercise and information processing: energizing motor processes during a choice reaction time task

The immediate and short-term after effects of a bout of aerobic exercise on young adults’ information processing were investigated. Seventeen participants performed an auditory two-choice reaction time (RT) task before, during, and after 40 min of ergometer cycling. In a separate session, the same sequence of testing was completed while seated on an ergometer without pedalling. Results indicate that exercise (1) improves the speed of reactions by energizing motor outputs; (2) interacts with the arousing effect of a loud auditory signal suggesting a direct link between arousal and activation; (3) gradually reduces RT and peaks between 15 and 20 min; (4) effects on RT disappear very quickly after exercise cessation; and (5) effects on motor processes cannot be explained by increases in body temperature caused by exercise. Taken together, these results support a selective influence of acute aerobic exercise on motor adjustment stage.     

The time course effect of moderate intensity exercise on response execution and response inhibition

This research aimed to investigate the time course effect of a moderate steady-state exercise session on response execution and response inhibition using a stop-task paradigm. Ten participants performed a stop-signal task whilst cycling at a carefully controlled workload intensity (40% of maximal aerobic power), immediately following exercise and 30 min after exercise cessation. Results showed that moderate exercise enhances a subjects’ ability to execute responses under time pressure (shorter Go reaction time, RT without a change in accuracy) but also enhances a subjects’ ability to withhold ongoing motor responses (shorter stop-signal RT). The present outcomes reveal that the beneficial effect of exercise is neither limited to motor response tasks, nor to cognitive tasks performed during exercise. Beneficial effects of exercise remain present on both response execution and response inhibition performance for up to 52 min after exercise cessation.     

Effect of acute aerobic exercise on cognitive performance: Role of cardiovascular fitness

ObjectivesTo determine whether fitness and cognitive task type moderate the relationship between acute exercise and cognition.MethodsThirty-six healthy college-aged adults completed a maximal graded exercise test and were categorized as low, moderate, or high in cardiovascular fitness. Participants then performed the Stroop Test prior to and after an acute bout of cycling exercise that consisted of a 5-min warm-up, 20 min of exercise at moderate intensity (65% VO_2max), and a 5-min cool-down.ResultsIndividuals of all fitness levels improved in cognitive performance following exercise. With regards to fitness, while no differences were observed on the congruent condition as a function of fitness, high fit individuals showed the longest response time on the Stroop incongruent condition.ConclusionThe beneficial relationship between performance of an acute bout of exercise and cognitive performance were observed for both cognitive task types and for participants of all fitness levels. However, a curvilinear relationship was observed between fitness and cognitive task type performance such that participants who were moderately fit performed the best on the incongruent trials, implying that maintaining fitness at a moderate level is associated with better executive function.     

Decline in executive control during acute bouts of exercise as a function of exercise intensity and fitness level

Studies on the effects of acute bouts of cardiovascular exercise on cognitive performances show contradictory findings due to methodological differences (e.g., exercise intensity, cognitive function assessed, participants’ aerobic fitness level, etc.). The present study assessed the acute effect of exercise intensity on cognition while controlling for key methodological confounds. Thirty-seven participants (M_age = 23. 8 years; SD = 2.6) completed a computerized modified-Stroop task (involving denomination, inhibition and switching conditions) while pedalling at 40%, 60% and 80% of their peak power output (PPO). Results showed that in the switching condition of the task, error rates increased as a function of exercise intensity (from 60% to 80% of PPO) in all participants and that lower fit individuals showed increased reaction time variability. This suggests that acute bouts of cardiovascular exercise can momentarily alter executive control and increase performance instability in lower fit individuals.     

Investigating the acute effect of an aerobic dance exercise program on neuro-cognitive function in the elderly

ObjectiveThe present study investigated the types of aerobic dance programs that positively impact cognition, such as executive function, in elderly people.DesignRandomized controlled trial.MethodThe study compared the effects of acute aerobic dance exercise on cognitive performance using two 40-min aerobic dance programs. Thirty-four elderly participants, aged 65–75 years, were randomly assigned into either free (N = 17) or combination (N = 17) style workout groups. The free style (FR) workout consisted of several patterns of movement, while the combination style (CB) workout consisted of similar patterns of movement to FR, but the patterns were joined to form a long choreographic routine. Both dance programs were controlled to be the same in exercise intensity, approximately 40% heart rate reserve. Reaction time and correct rates were measured using a task-switching reaction time test to evaluate executive cognitive performance immediately before and after the 40-min dance exercise.ResultsA two-way (dance program × pre-post dance exercise) repeated-measures analysis of variance for switch reaction time increase (switch cost) demonstrated a significant interaction (p = .006), showing that the switch cost in the CB group became smaller after the dance exercise than before (p = .009).ConclusionThe results suggest that the executive cognitive network was facilitated in a CB dance workout that has a dual-task nature and induces movement (task) interference with unexpected movement changes.     

急性有氧运动对认知表现的影响

急性有氧运动是持续时间在10~60分钟的一次有氧运动。急性有氧运动可暂时性地改变感觉敏感度、记忆、执行功能等认知功能, 但其对不同认知功能的影响效果存在差异, 干预结果受到个体体适能水平、运动强度和运动类型等因素的调节。目前用于解释急性有氧运动影响认知表现的理论有唤醒理论、前额叶功能衰退理论、神经内分泌模型和神经营养因子假说。未来的研究应加强对急性运动发挥作用机制的探究, 更多关注身心运动、团体运动等不同运动形式的干预效果, 以期为长期“运动处方”的开具提供依据。     

Positive affect moderates inhibitory control and positive affect following a single bout of self-select aerobic exercise

PurposeResearch suggests that individual differences in baseline cognitive performance moderates subsequent cognitive benefits following a single bout of exercise. The present study seeks to evaluate additional moderating mental states – specifically positive affect – on inhibitory control and affect following exercise.MethodsUsing a within- and between-participants pre-post cross-over design, eighty university students (54 females; 21.7 ± 2.7 years old) completed a flanker task and affect measures before and after a single bout of aerobic exercise at a self-selected intensity or studying for class (15-min) on separate days. Groups of high-positive affect (HPA; n = 41) and low-positive affect (LPA; n = 39) were determined based on a median split of positive affect measures prior to the exercise bout.ResultsThe HPA group revealed shorter reaction time (RT) from before to after exercise and rest with no difference observed between exercise and rest. The LPA group revealed shorter RT after exercise compared to before exercise and after rest. For accuracy, the LPA group improved performance during the exercise session compared to the rest session to a level comparable to the HPA group. Lastly, positive affect decreased in the LPA and HPA groups from before to after rest; however, only the LPA group’s positive affect increased from before to after exercise.ConclusionIndividuals with low positive affect experience greater cognitive and positive affect improvements following acute aerobic exercise at a self-select intensity, further supporting intraindividual differences in mental states as a mechanism for subsequent cognitive and affective benefits encompassing healthy behaviors of exercise.     

Moderate-to-vigorous intensity cycling exercise immediately after visual learning enhances delayed recognition memory performance

A single bout of acute aerobic exercise has been shown to improve long-term memory, though it is unclear if exercise before learning or after learning is optimal for memory enhancement. Although some research has demonstrated that exercise before learning is ideal, investigations have consistently shown that acute arousal post-learning is a powerful memory enhancer. Therefore, the purpose of this investigation was to compare the effects of self-perceived hard cycling before or after learning on recognition memory for emotional and neutral images, and examine the relationship between central noradrenergic activity and memory performance. Seventy-two males and females (18–35 years of age) participated in this between-subjects study. Participants were randomly assigned to one of the following groups: exercise before learning, exercise after learning, and control. Participants in the exercise groups engaged in 20 min of cycling at a rating of perceived exertion (RPE) of 15 (“hard”) on the Borg RPE scale before or after viewing a series of 90 pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral images (30 each). Participants in the control group engaged in no exercise before or after image viewing. At several time points throughout the experiment, saliva was collected to measure salivary alpha amylase (sAA), a marker of central noradrenergic activity. One-week later, recognition memory was assessed where participants viewed 180 images (90 new) and had to identify which images were previously viewed. Participants in the exercise after learning group had significantly higher recognition memory compared to the control group, but this was not seen with exercise before learning. sAA was not correlated with memory in any group, though it did increase during exercise. These results demonstrate that acute self-perceived hard cycling post-learning, but not pre-learning, improves recognition memory, though this was unrelated to the exercise-induced increase in central noradrenergic activity as measured in saliva.     

Moderate intensity exercise facilitates working memory

ObjectivesAlthough the effect of exercise on cognitive functioning has received considerable empirical and theoretical attention, the influence of concurrent exercise on complex cognitive function remains poorly understood. Our research was designed to investigate working memory during a bout of dynamic exercise.DesignAn experimental design was used.MethodsIn two experiments, we examined the impact of moderate intensity exercise on performance of a paced auditory serial addition task (Experiment 1, N = 24) and a Sternberg task (Experiment 2, N = 120). The tasks were performed at rest and while cycling at different power outputs.ResultsWe found that moderate intensity exercise increased the number of correct responses at medium-to-fast stimulus presentation rates during the paced auditory serial addition task and lowered the response latency slopes during the Sternberg task.ConclusionsOur findings show that working memory is improved by dynamic exercise at moderate intensities and short duration.     

Effects of an acute bout of localized resistance exercise on cognitive performance in middle-aged adults: A randomized controlled trial study

ObjectivesTo examine the effect of an acute bout of resistance exercise on cognitive performance in healthy middle-aged adults.DesignA randomized controlled trial design.MethodsForty-one adults (M_age = 49.10 years, SD = 8.73) were randomly assigned to either resistance exercise or a control condition. The resistance exercise condition consisted of 2 sets of 10 repetitions for 6 exercises, and the control condition involved reading about resistance exercise for a time period approximating the duration of the exercise condition. The Stroop Test and the Trail Making Test (TMT) were completed at baseline and immediately following performance of the treatment.ResultsResults indicated that resistance exercise significantly benefits speed of processing (Stroop Word and Stroop Color), and that there is a trend towards resistance exercise benefiting performance on an executive function task (Stroop Color–Word) that requires shifting of the habitual response. However, the results for the TMT were not significant which demonstrates that acute resistance exercise has a limited effect on inhibition.ConclusionThe present findings extend the literature by indicating that an acute bout of resistance exercise has a positive impact on automatic cognitive processes and on particular types of executive function in middle-aged adults.     

Examining the Effects of Exercise on Pattern Separation and the Moderating Effects of Mood Symptoms

Aerobic exercise has broad cognitive benefits. One target of interest is enhanced memory. The present study explored pattern separation as a specific memory process that could be sensitive to acute and regular exercise and clinically significant for disorders (e.g., depression) characterized by cognitive-affective deficits and hippocampal impairment. In a within-subjects design, participants (N = 69) attended two visits during which they repeated a behavioral pattern separation task at rest and after an activity (cycling, stretching). Regular exercise habits, demographics, mood and anxiety symptoms, and recognition memory capacity were also measured. More regular exercise predicted better resting pattern separation, t(62) = 2.13, b = 1.74, p = .037. Age moderated this effect, t(61) = 2.35, b = .25, p = .02; exercise most strongly predicted performance among middle-age participants. There was no main effect of activity condition on post-activity performance, t(61) = .67, p = .51. However, with significant heterogeneity in reported mood symptoms and regular exercise habits, there was a three-way interaction between condition, regular exercise, and depression, t(55) = 2.08, b = .22, p = .04. Relative to stretching, cycling appears to have enhanced the benefit of regular exercise for pattern separation performance; however, this was evident among participants with mild to no symptoms of depression, but absent among participants with moderate to severe symptoms. Results have implications for how exercise might protect against declines in pattern separation. Future research should explore exercise’s potential as a prevention tool or early intervention for pattern separation and related clinical outcomes.     

A single bout of resistance exercise can enhance episodic memory performance

Acute aerobic exercise can be beneficial to episodic memory. This benefit may occur because exercise produces a similar physiological response as physical stressors. When administered during consolidation, acute stress, both physical and psychological, consistently enhances episodic memory, particularly memory for emotional materials. Here we investigated whether a single bout of resistance exercise performed during consolidation can produce episodic memory benefits 48 h later. We used a one-leg knee extension/flexion task for the resistance exercise. To assess the physiological response to the exercise, we measured salivary alpha amylase (a biomarker of central norepinephrine), heart rate, and blood pressure. To test emotional episodic memory, we used a remember-know recognition memory paradigm with equal numbers of positive, negative, and neutral IAPS images as stimuli. The group that performed the exercise, the active group, had higher overall recognition accuracy than the group that did not exercise, the passive group. We found a robust effect of valence across groups, with better performance on emotional items as compared to neutral items and no difference between positive and negative items. This effect changed based on the physiological response to the exercise. Within the active group, participants with a high physiological response to the exercise were impaired for neutral items as compared to participants with a low physiological response to the exercise. Our results demonstrate that a single bout of resistance exercise performed during consolidation can enhance episodic memory and that the effect of valence on memory depends on the physiological response to the exercise.     

The immediate and sustained effects of acute exercise on planning aspect of executive function

ObjectiveThe purpose of this study was to clarify the immediate and sustained effects of an acute bout of exercise on the planning aspects of executive function.DesignThis study used a 2 × 4 true experimental design.MethodForty participants were randomly assigned to either the exercise or control groups and completed the Tower of London task prior to, immediately following, 30 min after, and 60 min after cessation of a 30 min, moderate intensity cycling exercise.ResultsAcute exercise positively impacted the total move score, which reflects planning efficiency, immediately after the cessation of exercise. Acute exercise also led to longer total initiation times, which were linked to better response inhibition of planning at 30 and 60 min after the cessation of exercise.ConclusionAcute exercise benefits planning, and the types of planning and the time points at which they were assessed modulate the relationship between acute exercise and executive function. Exercise-induced physiological and biological fluctuations have been proposed to explain the effects present immediately after exercise, and the mechanisms of such effects warrant further exploration.     

Visual threat detection during moderate- and high-intensity exercise

The aim of the study was to assess performance on a visual threat-detection task during concurrently performed vigorous exercise on a cycle ergometer. Thirty (15 female) participants completed a baseline condition of seated rest and then moderate- and high-intensity exercise. Moderate- and high-intensity exercise conditions were completed on the 2nd day in a counterbalanced order. During each exercise condition, participants responded to 3 × 3 picture matrices (256 trials in each condition) that contained discrepant fear-relevant and discrepant fear-irrelevant pictures (?hman, Flykt, & Esteves, 2001). Response accuracy was significantly greater, and reaction time was significantly faster, during moderate- and high-intensity exercise compared with the rest condition (ps < .001). The discrepant fear-relevant matrix type was detected significantly more accurately than a discrepant fear-irrelevant matrix (p < .001). The discrepant fear-relevant matrix was detected significantly faster than all other matrix types (p < .001). These results suggest that exercise at a moderate and high intensity may enhance the efficiency of visual detection of both threatening and nonthreatening targets.     

Executive functions and extraversion

Executive functions and extraversion have been linked to similar neurological substrates. Participants were tested on a variety of tasks that assessed performance on three components of executive functioning (i.e., shifting, updating, and inhibition) and two measures of extraversion (Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-Revised and Carver and White’s BIS/BAS scales). More extraverted participants showed different patterns of executive function performance than the more introverted participants. Extraverts performed best on more difficult tasks and on updating tasks. Conversely, introverts performed best on set shifting tasks. These results suggest that executive functioning strengths differ based on degree of extraversion.     

Differentiated ratings of perceived exertion and physiological responses during aerobic dance steps by impact/type of arm movement

Overall ratings of perceived exertion, i.e., undifferentiated RPE, are often used as indicators of exercise intensity during walking, jogging, and cycling; however, conflicting results concerning RPE during aerobic dance exercise have been reported, and the use of differentiated RPE, i.e., local RPE and central RPE, has not been investigated. The purposes of this study were to assess local, central, and over-all RPE, and physiological responses [heart rate (HR); % HRmax; absolute and relative VO2;% VO2 max, ventilation (VE), ventilatory equivalent (VE.VO2(-1); and oxygen pulse] during aerobic dance exercise varied by Arm Movement (Static Arm vs Dynamic Arm) and Impact (High vs Low). Trained women (N = 25; max VO2 = 50.4 +/- 7.5 ml.kg-1.min.-1) completed four aerobic dance steps. No RPE were significantly correlated with heart rate or VO2; however, for all steps all RPE were significantly (r = .40-.62) correlated with VE.VO2(-1) or VE. No interactions were present for RPE or physiological variables, and main effects were noted for Impact and Arm Movement. All RPE were greater for High Impact and for Static Arm Movement. Because VE and VE.VO2(-1) were correlated with Overall RPE for all steps, this may suggest that participants "attended to" perceived changes in respiratory phenomena during aerobic dance exercise. It appears that during combined arm-and-leg aerobic dance exercise the use of Overall RPE is sufficient to assess perceptual sensations associated with the intensity of the exercise. Changes in Overall RPE were proportionate to objective measures of exercise intensity, i.e., HR and VO2; however, it is recommended that both HR and Overall RPE be used to assess fully a participant's objective and subjective responses during aerobic dance exercise.     

Acute effects of mindful interval exercise on cognitive performance in a higher education setting

Interval exercise (IE) has been shown to have acute facilitating effects on cognition; however, the existing literature has been limited to laboratory settings and has focused on manipulating the parameters of exercise bouts during IE. This study included two classroom-based experiments to (1) investigate the effect of an acute bout of IE delivering mindfulness activity during its recovery intervals (mindful IE) on cognitive performance, and (2) compare cognitive performance following acute bouts of mindful IE with non-mindful IE. Experiment 1: Using a class-based within-subject crossover design, 59 participants completed the Stroop, d2, and trail-making tests to measure inhibitory control, attention, and cognitive flexibility, after a 30-min non-exercise or mindful IE session on separate counterbalanced days. Experiment 2: Using a similar design, 70 participants were assigned to two groups to receive a non-exercise and an IE session with (mindful) or without (non-mindful) mindfulness-based recovery intervals on separate counterbalanced days. Results from Experiment 1 showed superior d2 performance following the mindful IE than the non-exercise session. Although Experiment 2 found exercise-related decreases in commission error rate during the d2 test in both groups, the non-mindful group showed additional decreases in omission and total error rates. Further, higher scores on the nonreactivity facet of dispositional mindfulness were correlated with larger decreases in omission and total error rates during the d2 test for the mindful IE group. No exercise-related effect was found for outcomes of the Stroop and trail-making tests in both experiments. These findings in the selective improvements in d2 test performance are the first to suggest the feasibility of integrating mindfulness activity into the recovery intervals of IE for enhanced cognitive performance that may depend on individual differences in dispositional mindfulness.     

A single bout of aerobic exercise modulates motor learning performance and cortical excitability in humans

BackgroundEvidence indicates beneficial effects of aerobic exercise on motor learning performance, which might be caused by the impact of aerobic exercise on cortical excitability. It is thus suggested that physiological effects of aerobic exercise on cortical excitability determine the effects of aerobic exercise on motor learning. Nevertheless, respective results usually come from independent studies, and a prove of the causal relationship between neurophysiological and motor learning effects is still missing. This study aims to explore the impact of a single bout of aerobic exercise on brain physiology and motor learning, and the association between these phenomena in humansMethodThe study was conducted in a cross-over design. In twenty healthy subjects, cortical excitability and motor learning were assessed before and after a single bout of aerobic exercise or a control interventionResultsThe results show that aerobic exercise improved motor sequence learning and enhanced cortical excitability in humans. Furthermore, a correlation between the exercise-dependent alteration of cortical excitability (short intracortical inhibition, which is determined primarily by the GABAergic system) and improvement of motor learning has been foundDiscussionThe study found motor learning performance-improving effects of aerobic exercise, and these results might be explained by an exercised-caused alteration of cortical excitability, especially a reduction of GABA activity.     

Benefits of regular aerobic exercise for executive functioning in healthy populations

Research suggests that regular aerobic exercise has the potential to improve executive functioning, even in healthy populations. The purpose of this review is to elucidate which components of executive functioning benefit from such exercise in healthy populations. In light of the developmental time course of executive functions, we consider separately children, young adults, and older adults. Data to date from studies of aging provide strong evidence of exercise-linked benefits related to task switching, selective attention, inhibition of prepotent responses, and working memory capacity; furthermore, cross-sectional fitness data suggest that working memory updating could potentially benefit as well. In young adults, working memory updating is the main executive function shown to benefit from regular exercise, but cross-sectional data further suggest that task-switching and posterror performance may also benefit. In children, working memory capacity has been shown to benefit, and cross-sectional data suggest potential benefits for selective attention and inhibitory control. Although more research investigating exercise-related benefits for specific components of executive functioning is clearly needed in young adults and children, when considered across the age groups, ample evidence indicates that regular engagement in aerobic exercise can provide a simple means for healthy people to optimize a range of executive functions.     

Walking before study enhances free recall but not judgement-of-learning magnitude

The authors investigated whether a brief bout of aerobic exercise can influence subsequent judgements of learning (JOLs) or memory performance. 80 college students (46 women and 34 men) completed 1 of 4 conditions using a 2×2 (encoding condition×retrieval condition) between-subjects factorial design. After a practice task, students either viewed an unrelated slide show while sedentary or completed a brisk 10-minute walk. Then, all students studied 30 English nouns and provided immediate JOLs. Finally, students again completed either the sedentary activity or exercised, followed by a free recall test. Exercise before encoding increased free recall scores by 25% compared with the sedentary condition; as a result, absolute metamemory accuracy also improved. Encoding condition did not influence mean JOLs, however, suggesting that students were unaware of the memory benefits from exercise. Overall, these results suggest that individuals can gain a memory advantage from a 10-minute walk before studying.