The influence of success and failure experiences on perceptual whole-part preferences

Summary Changes in perceptual part-whole preferences as a function of experienced success and experienced failure were investigated. All Ss went through one testing session in which their perceptual preference was established. Forty-two Ss of the experimental group went through two additional testing sessions, one in which success and another in which failure experiences were induced. Parallel sets of a Two-Alternative Perception Test were used after each session to measure part or whole preferences. The Ss of the control group were administered the three sets of the perception test at intervals of one week, with situations kept constant. Results of a three-way analysis of variance (p<0.0001) supported the hypotheses of success situations favoring whole perceptions and of failure situations favoring part perceptions. Highly significant correlations (p<0.01) were found between the three testing sessions of the Ss in the control group, indicating stability of perceptual part-whole preferences over time, with situations held constant.This article was based, in parts, on a doctoral dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Political and Social Science, New School for Social Research. The author would like to express her appreciation to Mary Henle, chairman of the dissertation committee.     

The effects of assertive training on performance in highly anxious adolescents

The effects of assertive training on measures of assertiveness, state anxiety, and mathematics performance in highly anxious adolescents were investigated. A group of 96 highly anxious 9th graders was assigned to one of four treatment groups. Pretest and posttest assessment included the Adolescent Self-Expression Scale (a measure of assertiveness), the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and the Mathematics Problems and Concepts subtests of the California Achievement Test. Experimental treatment consisted of four assertive training sessions, while placebo treatment for the control groups consisted of four career development training sessions. Posttest was administered to all four groups. A MANOVA was used to analyze all of the data on the students who took the pre- and posttest and attended two or more training sessions. Assertive training resulted in increased assertiveness and decreased state anxiety, with no significant effect on mathematics performance, and no significant effect due to sex. It was concluded that assertive training is a counseling technique which can be used effectively with 9th graders.     

Coping in childhood: A comparative evaluation of different relaxation techniques

Abstract

This paper reports on the evaluation of relaxation trainings to improve the coping of children with stress situations. Over five training sessions, different relaxation techniques were presented to children to evaluate their short-term and long-term effects on different criteria. Included were a sensoric approach to relaxation (the Progressive Muscle Relaxation), an imaginative approach, and an imaginative approach with additional sensoric elements (combined training). Two control conditions were added. One of them presented non-tension producing stories instead of supplying a systematic relaxation training. The children of the second control condition participated at the measurements without any intervention. The participants were 826 children aged 7–14. The results show clear short-term effects on physiological parameters (blood pressure, pulse rate, body temperature) as well as on subjective ratings of the children's mood and somatic condition. In relation to the overall changes, the differences between the training conditions are comparatively small. Moreover, the long-term effects (recorded one week and two months after the five training sessions) were small in relation to the short-term effects.     

基于即时反馈的反应抑制训练对青少年和成人执行功能的训练效应和迁移效应

本研究以基于即时反馈的Stop Signal范式为训练任务, 考察3周训练是否对青少年和成人的执行功能产生训练效应和迁移效应。发现青少年、成人实验组和积极控制组都出现了训练效应。两个实验组均产生了对反应抑制Go/No-go任务的迁移效应; 但只有青少年实验组出现了对干扰抑制Stroop任务的迁移效应。成人实验组和积极控制组都出现了对2-back任务的迁移效应; 但只有青少年实验组出现了在2-和3-back任务上的迁移效应。所有组别都未能出现对推理能力的迁移。研究证明从青春期到成年期, 基于即时反馈的反应抑制训练能够对执行功能产生训练和迁移效应, 但迁移仅限于抑制和工作记忆等基础成分, 无法改善推理能力。     

SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING WITH CHILDREN: PROCEED WITH CAUTION

Three learning disabled children, selected on the basis of peer sociometric ratings and teacher referral, received social skills training. A group training procedure consisting of coaching, modeling, behavior rehearsal, and feedback was used to teach children the target behaviors of eye contact and appropriate verbal responses. A multiple baseline analysis across target behaviors was used to demonstrate treatment effectiveness on role-play scenes trained during treatment sessions. Duration of speech was measured as an untrained, corollary measure. The following measures were also obtained during baseline, posttreatment, and 1-mo follow-up for the experimental subjects and three control subjects: (a) performance on role-play scenes not trained during treatment sessions; (b) behavioral observations in a free play setting, and (c) sociometric ratings. In addition, the trained and untrained role-play scenes were administered by novel experimenters following treatment. The results indicated that socially unskilled, learning disabled children can be taught to respond appropriately to role-play situations. However, improved performance did not generalize to the natural school setting and treatment did not effect ratings of peer acceptance. The implications of these findings for future social skills training with children are discussed.     

Effects of criterion-level probing on demonstrating newly acquired discriminative behavior.

The purpose of the study was to determine whether probes of the final criterion-level discrimination administered during and after training provided an accurate measure of acquisition. Training and probe stimuli were designed to make training and probe trials initially very discriminable and then progressively less discriminable as training progressed. Initially, the discrimination required on probe trials was more difficult than the discrimination required on training trials. However, this difference in difficulty was gradually eliminated as training stimuli were topographically altered and made identical to probe stimuli by the end of training. Results showed that while correct responding was maintained throughout training, error patterns occurred on all probe trials administered during training. Error patterns developed regardless of whether probe trials occurred only at the beginning of training sessions (temporally discriminable probes) or were randomly interspersed in the training sessions (temporally indiscriminable probes). Probe error patterns seemed to be controlled by the stimulus properties of training and probe trials. Thus, probes did not measure acquisition as it occurred during training. Probe error patterns were maintained when probes were administered after completion of training. This final measure of acquisition did not agree with the demonstration of acquisition provided by the final training trial. The results suggest that probe trials can measure a different stimulus-response relationship from that trained when training starts with an easier or known discrimination and probes involve a final or criterion test of a more difficult or unknown discrimination. Stimulus control of correct responses versus error patterns is discussed.     

Stimulation cognitive chez les personnes âgées : effets d’une méthode de stimulation cognitive par les jeux sur les fonctions cognitives et l’estime de soi

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a cognitive stimulation program with games on scores to cognitive tests (processing speed, mental flexibility, working memory, inhibition) and how this program can benefit to a psycho-affective measure, self-esteem in older adults. Forty-eight participants over 60 years old took part in the experiment. They were divided into two groups: 1 group followed a program of cognitive stimulation using leisure activities with games and 1 control group in which people gathered every week. There were 8 sessions of cognitive stimulation using leisure activities like games, one-hour session a week. Measures have focused on speed of processing and executive functions (shifting, updating and inhibition). They have been evaluated before and after the training program. Results show that the cognitive stimulation program using leisure activities with games is effective on speed of processing, memory span, inhibition and self-esteem but shows no benefits on shifting and updating. These results indicate that it seems to be possible to enhance cognitive resources, inhibition and self-esteem using leisure activities with games as a tool for cognitive stimulation.     

Evaluating a metacognitive and planned happenstance career training course for taiwanese college students

This study used a pretest—posttest, nonequivalent control group, quasi experimental design to examine the effectiveness of a 12‐week, metacognitive and planned happenstance career training course for Taiwanese college students. The treatment groups significantly increased their career competencies in metacognitive, cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions over the comparison and nonequivalent control groups.     

Quality of life and affect in older persons: Hope, time frames, and training effects

This is a preliminary report of a project designed to increase hope and quality of life (QOL) in older persons through a series of five training sessions. The training sessions for the experimental groups are based on research on happiness, goal imagery, and time management. Data indicates that the training is effective in increasing expected QOL. Several measures of affect and stress are examined as a function of three time frames of self-reported QOL. Daily uplifts are significantly related to present and future QOL while measures of stress and major life changes are not. Correlations of affective measures with QOL tend to increase from time frames of the past five years through the present to the next five years, indicating the relevance of hope for older persons. Training for increased hope works with older persons. Data obtained in the process is used to address theoretical models of QOL in older persons. This project was supported by a grant from the American Association of Retired Persons Andrus Foundation.     

Implicit interpretation biases affect emotional vulnerability: A training study

Cognitive theories of emotion propose that the interpretation of emotion-eliciting situations crucially shapes affective responses. Implicit or automatic biases in these interpretations may hinder emotion regulation and thereby increase risk for the onset and maintenance of psychological disorders. In this study, participants were randomly assigned to a positive or negative interpretation bias training using ambiguous social scenarios. After the completion of the training, a stress task was administered and changes in positive and negative affect and self-esteem were assessed. The results demonstrate that the interpretation bias training was successful in that participants exhibited a tendency to interpret novel scenarios in accordance with their training condition. Importantly, the positive training condition also had a protective effect on self-esteem. Participants in this condition did not exhibit a decrease in self-esteem after the stress task, whereas participants in the negative condition did. These results demonstrate that implicit cognitive biases can be trained and that this training affects self-esteem. Implications of these findings for research on psychopathology and emotion regulation are discussed.     

Implicit interpretation biases affect emotional vulnerability: a training study

Cognitive theories of emotion propose that the interpretation of emotion-eliciting situations crucially shapes affective responses. Implicit or automatic biases in these interpretations may hinder emotion regulation and thereby increase risk for the onset and maintenance of psychological disorders. In this study, participants were randomly assigned to a positive or negative interpretation bias training using ambiguous social scenarios. After the completion of the training, a stress task was administered and changes in positive and negative affect and self-esteem were assessed. The results demonstrate that the interpretation bias training was successful in that participants exhibited a tendency to interpret novel scenarios in accordance with their training condition. Importantly, the positive training condition also had a protective effect on self-esteem. Participants in this condition did not exhibit a decrease in self-esteem after the stress task, whereas participants in the negative condition did. These results demonstrate that implicit cognitive biases can be trained and that this training affects self-esteem. Implications of these findings for research on psychopathology and emotion regulation are discussed.     

The Effects of Relaxation and Postural Training on External Perception: Improvement of Visual Acuity, Visual Field, and Hearing Acuity

This study examined the effects of muscular relaxation and postural training on external perception using a visual acuity test, a visual field test, and a hearing acuity test. Eighteen undergraduate students were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. The experimental group underwent muscular relaxation and postural training. Each subject in this group was administered the tests before and after the training. Each subject in the control group carried out the tests before and after participating in a 30-min conversation with the experimenter. On all three tests, the experimental group improved significantly more than the control group.     

EFFECTS OF RATER TRAINING AND PARTICIPATION ON COGNITIVE COMPLEXITY: AN EXPLORATION OF SCHNEIER'S COGNITIVE REINTERPRETATION

Schneier (1977) proposed that rater cognitive complexity interacts with format to affect the psychometric soundness of ratings. He also speculated that cognitive complexity may be enhanced by having raters participate in training and/or scale construction programs. This study was designed to test these latter hypotheses, while also providing a partial replication of Schneier's original research. Ninety-six undergraduate students were assigned to four groups. One participated in the construction of a set of BARS and was trained in their use, a second participated in BARS construction only, a third received training only, and the fourth served as a control group. All subjects were administered a measure of cognitive complexity before and after the experimental treatments. Also, all subjects evaluated five simulated ratees using the BARS. A training × participation (2 × 2) ANOCOV indicated no change in cognitive complexity scores as a result of the experimental treatments. A training × participation × (nominalized) cognitive complexity (2 × 2 × 2) MANOVA on mean ratings for the five stimuli found no effects on leniency error. A similar MANOVA on variances of ratings provided little evidence for effects on halo error. These results, taken in conjunction with those of other investigators who have failed to replicate Schneier's findings, suggest that the cognitive reinterpretation should be accepted with caution at best.     

The Effect of an Ethical Decision-Making Training on Young Athletes’ Attitudes Toward Doping

This article examines whether a training program in ethical decision making can change young athletes’ doping attitudes. Fifty-two young elite athletes were randomly assigned to either an ethical decision-making training group or a standard-knowledge-based educational program group. Another 17 young elite athletes were recruited for no-treatment control purposes. The ethical decision-making training comprised six 30-min online sessions in which the participants had to work through 18 ethical dilemmas related to doping. The standard-knowledge-based educational program was also conducted in six online sessions of comparable length to that of the ethical training. A short version of the Performance Enhancement Attitude Scale was administered to measure the effects of the trainings on doping attitude. Prior to as well as after the intervention, the mean doping attitude scores of the young athletes were low to very low, indicating vehement rejections of doping. The results of our experiment showed that the ethical training led to an attenuation of these rejections. No intervention effect was found in the standard education group. The observed slight increase in the doping attitude score could be an indication that the ethical decision-making training was successful in breaking up the athletes’ stereotypical style of reasoning about doping.     

Effectiveness of Spiritual Components Training on Life Satisfaction of Persian Orphan Adolescents

This study was performed with the purpose of determining the effectiveness of spiritual components training on life satisfaction of Persian orphan adolescents. The study population was from female adolescents of two orphanages located in Kerman, Iran. They were randomly divided into two experimental and two control groups (each group including ten members). The experimental groups were received the spiritual training in ten sessions (spiritual training included components such as image of God, relationship with God, Tawwakul, searching for meaning during difficulties and pain), whereas the control groups were in the waiting list. Life satisfaction questionnaire was completed by one experimental and one control group before the training; and also after it, all four groups filled out the mentioned questionnaire. The analysis of covariance on the results revealed that spiritual components training had a significant positive effect on life satisfaction of the experimental groups in comparison with the control groups. Lastly, discussion, conclusion, some suggestions and directions were indicated.     

Predictors of competitive anxiety direction in male Tae Kwon Do practitioners: a multilevel mixed idiographic/nomothetic interactional approach

Objectives: To examine (a) affective states, proximity of competition and personality traits as predictors of anxiety direction and (b) investigate the role of personality characteristics in moderating the relationship between anxiety direction and proximity of competition and affective states.Method: A multilevel mixed idiographic/nomothetic approach. Intensity and direction of competitive anxiety and positive (PA) and negative affect (NA) were monitored in 22 male Tae Kwon Do practitioners across a week preceding a major competition using the experience sampling method (ESM). The participants were assessed on neuroticism and extraversion. Negative and positive affect and anxiety intensity and direction were measured at three random times a day across 1 week before the competition and 1 hour pre-competition.Results: Multilevel regression analyses revealed that cognitive anxiety intensity, positive affect, proximity to competition and extraversion were significant predictors of cognitive anxiety direction. Significant interaction effects of proximity to competition and neuroticism, and neuroticism and negative affect on cognitive anxiety direction were also observed. Somatic anxiety direction was a function of positive affect, somatic anxiety intensity, proximity to competition and the interaction effects of neuroticism and somatic anxiety intensity and neuroticism and proximity to competition.Conclusions: A multilevel mixed idiographic/nomothetic interactional approach may substantially assist in the explanation of intra- and inter-individual differences in anxiety direction.     

Operant-behavioural and cognitive-behavioural treatment for chronic low back pain.

Fifty-eight outpatients with chronic low back pain were randomly allocated to one of six experimental conditions. Four conditions were designated as treatment conditions and two as control conditions. The four treatment groups consisted of: cognitive treatment (either with or without relaxation training) and behavioural treatment (either with or without relaxation training). The cognitive and behavioural groups also received physiotherapy. The two control conditions consisted of: attention (physiotherapy plus discussion sessions) and no-attention (physiotherapy-only) conditions. All conditions, including the two controls, received the same physiotherapy back-education and exercise program. For the sample as a whole, improvements were obtained on measures of affective distress, functional impairment, medication use, pain-related dysfunctional cognitions and use of active coping strategies. These improvements were generally maintained at 6- and 12-month follow-ups. The combined psychological/physiotherapy treatment conditions improved significantly more than the physiotherapy-only conditions from pre to posttreatment on measures of pain intensity, self-rated functional impairment and pain-related dysfunctional cognitions. However, these differences were only weakly maintained at 6- and 12-month follow-ups. The behavioural conditions improved significantly more than the cognitive conditions from pre to posttreatment on the self-rated measure of functional impairment, but this difference was not maintained at 6- and 12-month follow-ups. Progressive relaxation training was found to make little contribution to either cognitive or behavioural treatments.     

Learning to reflect and to attribute constructively as basic components of self‐regulated learning

Background. Higher education is facing a number of problems: adjusting to larger and more heterogeneous student populations, increasing the number of graduating students, and preparing for lifelong learning. Improving learning competence can make a substantial contribution to solving each of these major concerns. The growing knowledge base on self‐regulated learning was taken as one of the main starting points for our study. Aims. In this article we report on reflection and attribution as basic components of self‐regulated learning. We examine their trainability and their effect on academic performance. This study is part of a wider research project aimed at improving meta‐cognitive knowledge as well as affective, conative and regulation skills. The experimental treatment consisted of an integrated set of instructional conditions, which were operationalized in a series of training sessions, as well as practice and transfer tasks. Sample. The participants in this study were 141 first year students of business economics. The experimental group and both control groups each consisted of 47 students. Method. The effects of the learning environment were investigated using a quasi‐experimental design. To control for unintended effects of the design the experimental and the first control group had the same number of teaching hours (time‐on‐task) and both teachers and students were not informed about the experimental design. Attribution and reflection behaviour was measured through specific assignments; study results during and after the intervention period were taken as indicators of academic performance. To test the hypotheses, t tests and effect‐sizes were calculated. Results. After the intervention the experimental students showed a higher degree of reflective behaviour than the control students. Moreover, their attribution skills had also measurably improved. The experimental students obtained better study results than their peers in the control groups. Conclusions. This intervention study, focused on the combined training of learning to reflect and to attribute constructively, provides evidence of the successful fostering both of meta‐cognitive and of conative learning activities resulting in a positive impact on academic achievement.     

Memory complaint and memory performance in the elderly: The effects of memory-skills training and expectancy change

While the incidence of memory complaint has always been high among the elderly, recent research has demonstrated that there is often a discrepancy between subjective memory complaint and actual memory performance in this population. Four experimental groups were established to examine the relationship and the factors that may affect changes in memory complaint and memory performance. The groups consisted of a memory training condition, an expectancy change condition, an art discussion control condition, and an evaluation control condition. It was hypothesized that memory training sessions would be the most effective in increasing memory performance scores, and that the expectancy change sessions would significantly reduce the incidence of memory complaint. The findings provide support for these predictions and indicate that memory training programmes should teach strategies to facilitate memory while addressing older adults' expectations about memory performance.     

Test–retest reliability of an emotion maintenance task

Research on working memory has suggested domain-specific components for visual, verbal, and spatial information, and more recently for emotion. Affective working memory has been proposed as the set of processes involved in the maintenance of emotions to guide behaviour. The current study examined the reliability of an emotion maintenance/affective working memory task over two experimental sessions separated by one week. Subjective accuracy based on individual ratings was found to correlate over time and was highest for negatively valenced pictures. Results suggest that this paradigm is a reliable measure of emotion maintenance, underscoring the utility of this measure as an assessment tool for normative and clinical populations.