A solution to the many attitudes problem

Philosophical Studies - According to noncognitivism, normative beliefs are just desire-like attitudes. While noncognitivists have devoted great effort to explaining the nature of normative belief,...     

A new solution to the problem of luck

The issue of whether and how we have the control necessary for freedom and moral responsibility is central to all control accounts of freedom and moral responsibility. The problem of luck for libertarians aims to show that indeterministic agents are ill-equipped with the control required for freedom and moral responsibility. In view of this, we must either endorse scepticism about the possibility of free and morally responsible agents, or make some form of, possibly revisionary, compatibilism work. In this paper, I shall offer a new solution to the problem of luck for libertarians. After outlining the problem of luck, I shall argue that, given a particular approach to mental causation, indeterminism can be viewed as an essential requirement of free and morally responsible action. After this, I shall distinguish between different types of inability and show how this provides us with a solution to the problem of luck. Finally, I shall consider some advantages and objections to the proposed solution.     

A neuroengineering solution to the optimal tracking problem

A mathematical solution is developed for an optimal sensory-to-motor transformation. This specifies a unique vector of motor command signals for goal-directed upper limb movement, conditional on cost of muscular effort vs. performance accuracy. Derivation is based on a realistic model of visual tracking, incorporating characteristics of external tracking system, target and disturbance as well as multivariable, nonlinear, time-varying characteristics of neuromuscular and biomechanical systems internal to the human operator. The optimal transformation removes redundancy in a 58-dimensional muscle system to give a two-dimensional response, thus solving the degrees-of-freedom problem. While adaptive filter neural networks are required to implement the general solution, an instructive linear matrix approximation reveals computational modules with observable behavioural correlates such as prediction, synergy generation and speed–accuracy compromise.PsycINFO classification: 2330     

A modest solution to the problem of religious disagreement

Many assume that the best, and perhaps only, way to address the so-called Problem of Evil (PoE) is to claim that God does not do evil, but that God merely allows evil. This assumption depends on two claims: (i) the doing-allowing distinction exists and (ii) the doing-allowing distinction is morally significant. In this paper I try to undermine both of these claims. Against (i) I argue that some of the most influential analyses of the doing-allowing distinction face grave difficulties and that these difficulties are only exacerbated when applied to God. Against (ii) I argue that broadly Kantian considerations give a better explanation of the moral differences in paradigm cases than the doing-allowing distinction and, when applied to God, effectively dissolve the moral significance of the doing-allowing distinction. The upshot of this is that those who claim God does evil are no worse off than those who claim God allows evil regarding the PoE.     

A Kantian solution to the problem of imperceptible differences

There are cases such as climate change where the cumulative effects of the actions of several agents lead to grave harm but where no individual agent can make a perceptible difference for the better or worse. According to Derek Parfit, dealing with such imperceptible difference cases requires substantial changes to the way we think about morality. In On What Matters, Parfit builds on Kantian Ethics to address the problem of imperceptible differences, but the transformation that Kant's theory undergoes in his hands is radical. I argue that Parfit's changes to Kant's theory are not only unnecessary but also detrimental to making sense of the ethical dimensions of action in collective contexts. Building on the notion of imperfect duties, I offer an alternative solution to the problem of imperceptible difference cases that remains closer to Kant's original theory and avoids the difficulties of Parfit's approach.     

A theoretical analysis of the PAN ambiguous-cue problem

The PAN ambiguous-cue problem consists of three stimuli: P, the positive (consistently rewarded) cue; N, the negative (consistently nonrewarded) cue; and A, the ambiguous cue which is negative (nonrewarded) when paired with P, but positive (rewarded) when paired with N. This paper demonstrates how the finding of superior performance on the NA trials as compared to the PA trials (with stereometric objects) can be rigorously derived from a recent extension of Hull-Spence discrimination learning theory, the Stimulus Interaction Hypothesis. It is also shown how this theory can account for the converse outcome of better performance on PA than on NA trials when planometric plaques are used as stimuli. Finally, alternative explanations of the findings are described and evaluated.     

A general first-order solution to the ramification problem with cycles

We provide a solution to the ramification problem that integrates findings of different axiomatic approaches to ramification from the last ten to fifteen years. For the first time, we present a solution that: (1) is independent of a particular time structure, (2) is formulated in classical first-order logic, (3) treats cycles – a notoriously difficult aspect – properly, and (4) is assessed against a state-transition semantics via a formal correctness proof.This is achieved as follows: We introduce indirect effect laws that enable us to specify ramifications that are triggered by activation of a formula rather than just an atomic effect. We characterise the intended models of these indirect effect laws by a state-transition semantics. Afterwards, we show how to compile a class of indirect effect laws into first-order effect axioms that then solve the ramification and frame problems. We finally prove the resulting effect axioms sound and complete with respect to the semantics defined earlier.     

Tooley's solution to the inference problem

Conclusion Tooley's speculative theory, I have tried to show, is beset with difficulties. I warned that this theory threatens to fail in its goal of illuminating the possible nature of a necessitation relation if it employs radical principles about parts and wholes and universals. Secondly, I argued that regardless of how we interpret the crucial phrase existing only as a part of, the speculative theory cannot solve the inference problem without appealing to such radical principles. Finally, I considered and rejected a version of Tooley's speculative theory that attempts to solve the inference problem using the Indiscernibility of Identicals.I conclude that the speculative theory fails. Tooley must fall back to the stipulative theory and live with the lack of an illuminating solution to the inference problem. But this is not to admit defeat. While it would be nice to have a more complete account of its workings, we may view the introduction of the necessitation relation as a theoretical posit, analogous to the positing of subatomic particles in physics to account for various data.I would like to thank Phillip Bricker for his persistent help with this paper. I would also like to thank David Lewis and an anonymous referee for Philosophical Studies for their comments.     

A general solution to Mosier's oblique procrustes problem

Browne provided a method for finding a solution to the normal equations derived by Mosier for rotating a factor matrix to a best least squares fit with a specified structure. Cramer showed that Browne's solution is not always valid, and proposed a modified algorithm. Both Browne and Cramer assumed the factor matrix to be of full rank. In this paper a general solution is derived, which takes care of rank deficient factor matrices as well. A new algorithm is offered.     

A minimum-cost network-flow solution to the case V thurstone scaling problem

This paper presents an approach for determining unidimensional scale estimates that are relatively insensitive to limited inconsistencies in paired comparisons data. The solution procedure, shown to be a minimum-cost network-flow problem, is presented in conjunction with a sensitivity diagnostic that assesses the influence of a single pairwise comparison on traditional Thurstone (ordinary least squares) scale estimates. When the diagnostic indicates some source of distortion in the data, the network technique appears to be more successful than Thurstone scaling in preserving the interval scale properties of the estimates.My special thanks go to Alvin Silk, Thomas Magnanti, and Roy Welsch for their support and advice throughout the formative stages of this paper, and to V. Srinivasan for his helpful comments on a later draft of this paper. I also wish to thank the Editor, Associate Editor, and two reviewers for their constructive suggestions.James M. Lattin is Associate Professor of Marketing and Management Science and the James and Doris McNamara Faculty Fellow for 1988-1989.     

Causal Cognitive Architecture 3: A solution to the binding problem

The binding problem is considered in terms of how a brain-inspired cognitive system can recognize multiple sensory features from an object which may be among many objects, process those features individually and then bind the multiple features to the object they belong to. The Causal Cognitive Architecture 3 (CCA3) is a brain-inspired cognitive architecture using a multi-dimensional navigation map as its basic store of information, and capable of pre-causal as well as fully causal behavior. Objects within an input sensory scene are segmented, and sensory features (e.g., visual, auditory, etc.) of each segmented object are spatially mapped onto a variety of navigation maps. It is shown that to provide efficient, flexible, causal solutions to real-world problems, it is not sufficient to bind space (i.e., objects spatially) but it is necessary to also bind time (i.e., change and rate of change of objects within a sensory scene). The CCA3 binds both space and time onto a navigation map as physical features, and is better able to function in real-world environments. As the CCA3 is brain-inspired, the Causal Cognitive Architecture can help to better hypothesize and understand biological mammalian brain function, including solutions to the binding problem. The CCA3 architecture allows it to work in different knowledge domains, possess continual lifelong learning, and demonstrate reasonable explainability.     

A generalized solution of the orthogonal procrustes problem

A solutionT of the least-squares problemAT=B +E, givenA andB so that trace (EE)= minimum andTT=I is presented. It is compared with a less general solution of the same problem which was given by Green [5]. The present solution, in contrast to Green's, is applicable to matricesA andB which are of less than full column rank. Some technical suggestions for the numerical computation ofT and an illustrative example are given.This paper is based on parts of a thesis submitted to the Graduate College of the University of Illinois in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Ph.D. degree in Psychology.The work reported here was carried out while the author was employed by the Statistical Service Unit Research, U. of Illinois. It is a pleasure to express my appreciation to Prof. K. W. Dickman, director of this unit, for his continuous support and encouragement in this and other work. I also gratefully acknowledge my debt to Prof. L. Humphreys for suggesting the problem and to Prof. L. R. Tucker, who derived (1.7) and (1.8) in summation notation, suggested an iterative solution (not reported here) and who provided generous help and direction at all stages of the project.     

The elegant solution to the problem of impotence

Although most therapists are committed to debunking the dual myths that sex requires an erection and that sex equals intercourse, sex researchers continue to use successful intercourse as a primary dependent variable. It is here asserted that RET therapists would do well to approach the problem of erectile dysfunction from a more elegant philosophical perspective. The treatment approach outlined here is aimed at reducing client disturbance as well as increasing sexual satisfaction rather than at simply helping the client to regain his potency.