The Satisfaction With Life Scale

This article reports the development and validation of a scale to measure global life satisfaction, the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS). Among the various components of subjective well-being, the SWLS is narrowly focused to assess global life satisfaction and does not tap related constructs such as positive affect or loneliness. The SWLS is shown to have favorable psychometric properties, including high internal consistency and high temporal reliability. Scores on the SWLS correlate moderately to highly with other measures of subjective well-being, and correlate predictably with specific personality characteristics. It is noted that the SWLS is Suited for use with different age groups, and other potential uses of the scale are discussed.     

Reciprocal Associations between Burnout and Depression: An 8-Year Longitudinal Study

The purpose of the present four-wave longitudinal study was to examine the differentiation and reciprocal associations between burnout and depression, and their associations with a series of correlates related to employees’ physical and psychological health (sleep disturbances, somatic symptoms, self-rated subjective health, and life satisfaction). A total of 542 early career Finnish workers filled out questionnaires four times over a period of 8 years. First, our results supported the superiority of a bifactor exploratory structural equation modeling (bifactor-ESEM) representation of employees’ burnout ratings, and the empirical differentiation between burnout and depression ratings over each measurement occasion. These results further revealed moderate cross-sectional associations between burnout and depression, supporting their inter-related character but also their empirical distinctiveness. Second, autoregressive cross-lagged analyses revealed that both constructs presented a moderate level of stability over time and reciprocal associations that generalized to all time intervals considered. Finally, relations between depression and all correlates measures during the last wave of the study were in the expected direction, whereas burnout was found to be more weakly related to only a subset of these correlates. Taken together, these results thus support the distinctiveness of burnout and depression, and the presence of mutually reinforcing relations between them.     

The Satisfaction With Life Scale: Measurement invariance across immigrant groups

The current study examined measurement invariance of the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS; Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985) across three immigrant groups, namely, immigrants from the Former Soviet Union (FSU) in Israel, Turkish-Bulgarians, and Turkish-Germans. The results demonstrate measurement invariance of the SWLS across groups. The findings that Turkish-Bulgarian and FSU immigrants in Israel scored significantly lower on the SWLS compared to Turkish-Germans can be explained by assimilative policies in Israel and Bulgaria. In conclusion, our results suggest the SWLS is feasible for cross-cultural comparisons of immigrants of various age groups. Future investigation of measurement invariance over time is needed to use the SWLS in a developmental perspective.     

Predictors of subjective well-being among college youth in Lebanon

The authors investigated the prevalence and predictors of subjective well-being (SWB) in a particular Middle Eastern culture: that of Lebanon. The authors examined personality constructs of self-esteem, optimism, and positive affect in relation to SWB. The authors surveyed a sample of 689 individuals between the ages of 17 and 24 by using four instruments with established cross-cultural validity: (a) the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS; E. Diener, R. Emmons, R. J. Larsen, & S. Griffin, 1985), (b) the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; D. Watson, L. A. Clark, & A. Tellegen, 1988), (c) the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE; M. Rosenberg, 1965), and (d) the revised Life Orientation Test (LOT-R; M. F. Scheier, C. S. Carver, & M. W. Bridges, 1994). The results indicated that college youth's SWB was positively correlated with self-esteem, optimism, and positive affect. Examining the demographic variable of gender, the authors found that men had higher scores on positive affect than did women. A trend emerged that suggested that language dominance and socioeconomic status were associated with SWB levels. The results suggest that internal personality constructs are more predictive of satisfaction with life than are demographic variables.     

A validation of well-being and happiness surveys for administration via the Internet

Internet research is appealing because it is a cost- and time-efficient way to access a large number of participants; however, the validity of Internet research for important subjective well-being (SWB) surveys has not been adequately assessed. The goal of the present study was to validate the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS; Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985), the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS-X; Watson & Clark, 1994), and the Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS; Lyubomirsky & Lepper, 1999) for use on the Internet. This study compared the quality of data collected using paper-based (paper-and-pencil version in a lab setting), computer-based (Web-based version in a lab setting), and Internet (Web-based version on a computer of the participant’s choosing) surveys for these three measures of SWB. The paper-based and computer-based experiment recruited two college student samples; the Internet experiments recruited a college student sample and an adult sample responding to ads on different social-networking Web sites. This study provides support for the reliability, validity, and generalizability of the Internet format of the SWLS, PANAS-X, and SHS. Across the three experiments, the results indicate that the computer-based and Internet surveys had means, standard deviations, reliabilities, and factor structures that were similar to those of the paper-based versions. The discussion examines the difficulty of higher attrition for the Internet version, the need to examine reverse-coded items in the future, and the possibility that unhappy individuals are more likely to participate in Internet surveys of SWB.     

Salutogenic constructs across Pakistan and Germany: A cross sectional study

Background/ObjectiveProtective factors are relevant for mental health in general, however, universality of the instruments has been rarely tested. Therefore, the current study aimed to examine psychometric properties and cross-cultural measurement invariance of salutogenic constructs.MethodData was collected from university students of Pakistan (n = 1,841) and Germany (n = 7,890). Single-group confirmatory analysis (CFA) and multiple-group CFA was tested to examine the proposed factor structure and measurement invariance of Positive Mental Health Scale, Resilience Scale, Perceived Social Support Questionnaire, and Life Satisfaction Scale across student samples from Pakistan and Germany respectively.ResultsWe found strong measurement invariance for the Positive Mental Health Scale, Life Satisfaction Scale, and partial strong measurement for the Resilience Scale, and Perceived Social Support Questionnaire.ConclusionsThe results indicate that these scales could be recommended for the meaningful comparison of latent means across cultures. Understanding these differences would further advance our knowledge about the mechanism underlying positive mental health.     

A bifactor model of subjective well-being: A re-examination of the structure of subjective well-being

The present research has aimed to extend the previous research on the structure of subjective well-being (SWB) by applying the bifactor model. The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) were administered to two large samples of Serbian young adults (N₁ = 1669, N₂ = 1522). The bifactor model of SWB with one general and three specific factors (life satisfaction, positive affect, and negative affect) provided the best fit to the data and outperformed the original three-factor model and the higher-factor model in both samples. The results supported the multidimensional nature of SWB, with a strong general factor underlying the SWLS and PANAS. Bifactor modeling has shown that SWLS and PANAS reflect both common and specific variance in SWB, with about half of the reliable variance in life satisfaction, positive affect, and negative affect being independent of the general factor. The present findings imply that researchers should be careful when interpreting SWLS and PANAS scores and that general SWB factor should be taken into account. Implications for scale scoring and interpretation, and theoretical conceptualization of SWB are discussed.     

父母、同伴依恋与希望的相互作用模型:一项大学新生的追踪研究

为了考察父母、同伴依恋与希望的纵向关系,本研究以大学新生为研究对象,采用父母、同伴依恋问卷与希望量表,对1283名大一学生进行为期一年共三次的追踪研究。结果发现：（1）三次测量的父母、同伴依恋均与希望存在正相关;（2）交叉滞后模型表明,父母、同伴依恋与希望均存在相互影响的关系;（3）基于性别差异的分组模型分析表明,仅同伴依恋与希望的横断关系存在性别差异,女生相关系数显著大于男生。研究揭示,依恋与希望存在稳定的横向相关关系,并且依恋与希望存在相互预测的纵向关系。     

Personality factors in dysphoria: A psychometric refinement of beck's Sociotropy-Autonomy Scale

The Sociotropy-Autonomy Scale (SAS) was developed as a means of assessing two cognitive-personality constructs postulated as vulnerability factors in depression (Beck, 1983). While studies have confirmed the validity of the SAS Sociotropy Scale, the construct validity of the Autonomy Scale has not been well supported. The present study was conducted to improve on the measurement of autonomy by generating additional items which were added to the original questionnaire. This 93-item SAS was administered to 485 undergraduates along with the Beck Depression Inventory, Beck Anxiety Inventory, PRF Affiliation and Autonomy Scales, Positive and Negative Emotionality Measures, and Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale. Four factors labeled Sociotropy, Solitude/Interpersonal Insensitivity, Independence, and Individualistic Achievement emerged from a principal-factor analysis of the SAS item pool. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses indicated that positive emotionality and solitude/interpersonal insensitivity were specifically related to dysphoria, while negative emotionality and sociotropy had significant associations with both anxious and depressed mood states.This research was supported by University of New Brunswick Research Grant 22–51 awarded to the first author.     

Multivariate autoregressive cross-lagged modeling of the reciprocal longitudinal relationship between perceived control and academic achievement

Although many studies have demonstrated positive associations between perceived control and academic achievement, few studies have actually explored which of the two constructs is the determinant of the other. There are only a few longitudinal studies on the relationship of perceived control and academic achievement. The present study examined the reciprocal longitudinal relation between perceived control and academic achievement. Further, considering the multiethnic background of the USA, this study investigated how the relationship between two constructs varies with ethnicity. Using a randomly selected sample of 1,500 students from Asian, Black, Hispanic, and White groups in the National Education Longitudinal Study data, Autoregressive Cross-lagged Modeling was performed to get a complete picture of the longitudinal relationship. Results showed a positive longitudinal effect of academic achievement on perceived control across the ethnic groups. Explanations for these findings are discussed.     

Measurement invariance of the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) by gender and age in Angola

Subjective well-being is a research arena that has grown almost exponentially: over the last 20 years, the number of publications on subjective well-being has increased approximately 16-fold (Diener, 2009). The cognitive aspect of subjective well-being or life satisfaction is referred to a conscious cognitive judgment of life (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin 1985), in which person’s quality of life is globally assessed (Shin & Johnson, 1978). The Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS, Diener et al., 1985) is the most widely used instrument for its measurement. A reliable, valid and invariant measurement is critical for meaningful comparisons. The aim of this study is to examine the configural, metric and scalar invariance across age in the Portuguese version of the SWLS with a sample of 5630 Angolans. A standard measurement invariance procedure has been applied both across gender and age. Results shown that scalar invariance of the SWLS held across gender and age. This strong invariance allowed for meaningful latent mean comparisons. There were latent mean differences due to gender and age, but while gender differences were modest, the age differences were larger. Results are discussed in their relation with existing literature.     

Psychometric critique of acculturation psychology: the case of Iranian migrants in Norway

The presumptions, terminology, psychometrics, statistical analyses, and ethics of the fourfold acculturation paradigm are criticized in detail. Illustrative data came from Iranian refugees in Norway (N = 80) answering: 1) the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), 2) Zung's Self-Rating Depression Scale (ZSRDS), 3) ipsative fourfold scales of Integration, Assimilation, Separation, and Marginalization, 4) orthogonal scales of attitudes towards Norwegian and Iranian cultures, measured independently and using balanced reverse-keying, and 5) ipsative forced-choice preferences for cultural practices of Norway, Iran, both, or from other societies as well. Iranians in Norway favored global multiculturalism and, as a group. did not show distress. The SWLS and ZSRDS were correlated, but the measures of acculturation failed to replicate one another. As unconstrained ipsative measures, the fourfold scales showed acquiescence response bias contamination and doubtful operationalization of scale constructs. Recommendations are discussed for improving acculturation research.     

The Interplay of Self‐Certainty and Prosocial Development in the Transition from Late Adolescence to Emerging Adulthood

The transition from late adolescence to emerging adulthood is a period of the life span that offers young people the possibility to consolidate their self‐certainty and prosociality. Both aspects are of core importance for increasing personal and societal well‐being. The purpose of this longitudinal study was twofold: (i) to examine patterns of change and stability in self‐concept clarity and prosociality; and (ii) to unravel over time associations between these constructs in the transition from late adolescence to emerging adulthood. In addressing both aims, we explored the moderating effects of gender. Participants were 244 Dutch emerging adults (46% male; mean age at T1 = 16.73 years) who completed six waves of data collection (mean age at T6 = 22.7 years). Findings highlighted that (i) self‐concept clarity developed nonlinearly, with an initial decline from T1 to T2 followed by an increase thereafter, while prosociality increased linearly over time and both self‐concept clarity and prosociality were characterized by high rank‐order consistency; (ii) self‐concept clarity and prosociality were positively related over time, with the effect of prosociality on self‐concept clarity being stronger than the reciprocal effect of self‐concept clarity on prosociality. Gender differences were detected in mean levels of self‐concept clarity and prosociality (male participants reported higher self‐concept clarity and lower prosociality than female participants) but not in their developmental pathways nor in their reciprocal associations. Copyright © 2016 European Association of Personality Psychology     

Subjective well-being in adolescence: New psychometric evidences on the satisfaction with life scale

The main purpose of the present study was to test the psychometric properties of the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) in a large sample of Spanish adolescents. The sample consisted of 1020 non-clinical adolescents with a mean age of 15.96 years (SD = 1.68). The level of internal consistency of the SWLS Total score by means of McDonald’s Omega was .85. The one-dimensional model displayed appropriate goodness of-fit indices. Strong measurement invariance for the one factor model across age and gender was found. Younger adolescents reported higher levels of life satisfaction. In addition, SWLS total score was negatively associated with behavioural and emotional. The study confirmed that the SWLS is a useful tool for the screening of self-reported life satisfaction in adolescents.     

Use of Creative Cognition and Positive Affect in Studying: Evidence of a Reciprocal Relationship

This two-wave study examined the longitudinal relationships between positive affect in studying and the use of creative cognition in studying. Based on the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions, the mood-as-input model, the control-process model of self-regulation of intentional behavior, and self-determination theory, it was hypothesized that positive affect will be both an antecedent and a consequence of the use of creative cognition. A sample of 130 university students completed the International Positive and Negative Affect Schedule–Short Form (I-PANAS-SF) and the Use of Creative Cognition Scale (UCCS) with reference to their overall studying experience in the first and second semesters of an academic year. A comparison of alternative structural equation models showed clear support for the reciprocal relationship between positive affect in studying and the use of creative cognition in studying. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are outlined.     

Longitudinal links between career adaptability and academic achievement in adolescence

Contemporary youth spend increasingly longer time in the educational system, where their career pursuits become closely intertwined with their educational goals. As career development is a life-long process, adolescents start working on their careers long before they engage in actual work behaviors. Therefore, in order for school to adaptively prepare youth for their future work lives, career adaptability and academic achievement should be reciprocally and positively linked throughout adolescence. To date, more longitudinal proof for these relations is needed. To address this shortcoming, we investigated cross-lagged associations between these two constructs in a three-wave longitudinal study, testing the moderating role of adolescents' gender, school type, and age. Participants were 1151 adolescents (41.3% boys), who completed the same paper-and-pencil measure three times across an academic year. Results showed positive reciprocal associations between career concern and academic achievement (i.e., Grand Point Average). This indicates that adolescents with a strong future orientation, who were already invested in career planning activities tended to perform better in school and vice-versa, high academic achievement further strengthened adolescents' positive outlooks on their vocational future. We also detected positive unidirectional links from academic achievement to career control and career confidence across one academic year. Interestingly, we did not find significant longitudinal links between career curiosity and academic achievement. These patterns of longitudinal relations applied equally to boys and girls, to those attending university-preparatory and work-bound schools, and to early-to-middle and middle-to-late adolescents. Research and applied implications of these findings are detailed.     

Age-related differences and change in positive and negative affect over 23 years

Positive and negative affect, measured by the Bradburn Affect Balance Scale, were studied in a longitudinal sample spanning from 1971 to 1994. The sample (N = 2,804) represented 4 generations of families. Linear trend analyses compared generations over time for positive and negative affect and also examined the possible influences of neuroticism and extraversion on initial levels of affect and patterns of change in affect. Negative affect decreased with age for all generations, although the rate was attenuated among the oldest adults. Higher neuroticism scores also attenuated the decrease in negative affect across time. For positive affect, the younger and middle-aged adults showed marked stability, but the older group evidenced a small decrease over time. Higher levels of extraversion were related to more stability in positive affect.     

Exploring the Reciprocal Relations between Nonsuicidal Self-Injury, Negative Emotions and Relationship Problems in Chinese Adolescents: A Longitudinal Cross-Lag Study

The present study explored the reciprocal relations between nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI), negative emotions and relationship problems in a community sample of 2,435 (57.6% females) Chinese adolescents. Participants completed measures assessing 12 NSSI behaviors, three negative emotions (depression, anxiety and tension), and relationship problems at two time points over a 6-month period. A longitudinal cross-lag analysis was used to test the reciprocal relations among the studied variables. Results showed that after controlling for their initial associations, NSSI significantly predicted negative emotions over time but not vice versa, and relationship problems significantly predicted NSSI over time but not vice versa. Theoretical and clinical implications of these findings were discussed.     

The Dynamics of Creative Self-Concept: Changes and Reciprocal Relations Between Creative Self-Efficacy and Creative Personal Identity

Although creative self-concept constructs are intensively studied in the creativity literature, little is known about the dynamics of their changes during the life span and the relationships between different aspects of the creative self-concept. Using a longitudinal and a cross-sequential design, this investigation aimed to test changes in two important creative self-concept constructs—creative self-efficacy and creative personal identity—over short (6 months) and longer (20 months) periods of time, while simultaneously examining reciprocal relationships between them. The results showed the short-term stability of both constructs, but they also revealed significant change over the longer period―specifically, a growth of creative self-efficacy and creative personal identity in people from late adolescence to early adulthood and a drop among older participants. Reciprocal longitudinal relationships between creative self-efficacy and creative personal identity were also demonstrated, with creative self-efficacy being a more stable predictor of creative personal identity than the reverse.     

The Psychometric Evaluation of the Satisfaction with Life Scale Using a Nationally Representative Sample of China

This study examined the psychometric properties of the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) in terms of internal consistency reliability, factorial validity, and measurement invariance across gender, age, residential region (metropolitan area/county town/rural area), educational level, and household income with a nationally representative sample of 4,795 participants in China. The percentages of male (47.0%) and female (53.0%) participants were about equal, and the mean age was 38.56 years (SD = 11.87). The results show that the SWLS has a high internal consistency reliability, a one-factor structure (with a wording effect on Items 4 and 5), strict invariance across gender, partial strict invariance across education (Items 1, 2 and 3), and partial strong invariance across age, income (Items 1, 2 and 3) and residential region (Items 1 and 2). The non-invariance of some items across age and region is discussed in terms of the rapid economic and social transitions of China in the past three decades.