The sex discrimination act and the apu occupational interests guide: A reply to closs

Closs has suggested that the present interest differences between the sexes are a sufficient basis for guidance on career choice. It is doubtful, however, whether the practice of such sexual pre-selection is within either the letter or the spirit of the Sex Discrimination Act. It is accordingly argued that the APU guide is discriminatory and backward-looking. Though statistically excellent, it should not be used in its present form, but should be altered in accordance with contemporary morals and recent legislation.     

Influence of discrimination awareness on the occupational interests of African American children

This study examined the influence of discrimination awareness on children's occupational interests. Participants included 46 African American children aged 10 to 13. Children completed pretest measures of perceptions of occupational racial discrimination, discrimination-related self-efficacy beliefs, occupational outcome expectations, and the perceived status of their aspired-to and expected occupations. Participants were then randomly assigned to a bias resistance condition or a control condition. After participating in workshops that either did or did not address bias resistance, children completed posttest measures identical to pretest measures. At pretest, the gap in status of children's aspired-to and expected occupations was positively correlated to their perceptions of occupational racial discrimination, and this relation was mediated by occupational outcome expectations. At posttest, children in the bias resistance condition had higher-status occupational expectations than children in the control condition, and this difference was due to improved occupational outcome expectations in the bias resistance condition.     

Sibling association and occupational interests

The effect of the composition and size of family on the subject and career interests of girls of above-average ability in a secondary school were examined. The main finding was that girls with order brothers or from larger families tend to express artistic occupational interests. This is explained in terms of the family socialisation theories of Parsons and Bales.     

The career aspirations and occupational interests of culturally disadvantaged children

The occupational aspirations and interests of a sample of culturally disadvantaged children aged 15½ years and a matched control group were compared. Whilst the disadvantaged boys aspired to jobs of lower social-class status than their control-group peers, the two girls' groups showed very similar aspiration levels, and the disadvantaged group as a whole was oriented towards skilled jobs. The mean occupational interest profiles of the groups did not differ significantly. A higher proportion of the disadvantaged children were reported as being unemployed shortly after leaving school. It is concluded that there was a serious mismatch between the career aspirations of some of the disadvantaged group and their prospects. Ways in which this might be reduced through better school careers guidance and education programmes are briefly considered.     

Longitudinal associations between gender-typed skills and interests and their links to occupational outcomes

Although gender-based occupational segregation has declined in past decades, the world of work remains segregated by gender. Grounded in research showing that individuals tend to choose jobs that match their interests and skills, this study examined the longitudinal associations between gendered activity interests and skills from middle childhood through adolescence and tested gendered interests and skills, measured in adolescence, as predictors of occupational outcomes in young adulthood. Data were collected from 402 participants at four time points—when they averaged 10, 12, 16, and 25 years old. Results revealed that the longitudinal linkages between male-typed interests and skills were bidirectional, that both male-typed interests and skills in adolescence predicted working in male-typed occupations in young adulthood, and that skills, but not interests, predicted income. In contrast, female-typed interests predicted female-typed skills, but not the reverse, adolescent female-typed skills (but not interests) predicted working in female-typed occupations in young adulthood, and there were no links between female-typed interests or skills and income. Discussion focuses on the differential meanings and developmental implications of male- versus female-typed interests and skills.     

Relation of occupational knowledge to career interests and competence perceptions in Italian children

The relations of differential occupational knowledge with interests and competence perceptions in children as well as how these relations were moderated by gender and grade were examined in this study using an Italian sample. Data were collected from samples of elementary school and middle school children (N = 539). The Inventory of Children's Activities—Revised (ICA-R; Tracey & Ward, 1998) was used to assess children's interest and competency perceptions in various activities associated with the Holland's RIASEC types. The Occupational Knowledge Scale (OKS) was created for this study, and consisted of a representative sampling of occupational titles to which children indicated their knowledge. Hierarchical regression results indicated a relationship between knowledge, interests, and competence perceptions in children. With regard to overall knowledge, no relationship was found between general knowledge and either grade or gender. More specific examination of the type of knowledge as it varied across the dimensions of People–Things, and Data–Ideas demonstrated that there appeared to be a specific pattern relating interest, gender, and grade to knowledge of occupations. For knowledge of people relative to things occupations, higher interest, higher grade level, and being female predicts stronger knowledge of people occupations. It was also found that interest in ideas predicts stronger knowledge of ideas occupations, and being male predicts stronger knowledge of high prestige occupations. Generally, competence perceptions did not have a unique relation with one's knowledge of People–Things, Ideas–Data, or Prestige; however, girls who reported higher competence had greater knowledge of ideas occupations.     

The structure of interests as a structure of occupational stimuli and as a structure of affective responses

The structure of interests has usually been perceived as a structure of occupational stimuli, but it can also be conceived of as a structure of the affective responses that occupational stimuli elicit, or as a structure of these stimuli embedded within the matrix of affective responses which they produce. Each of these three structural representations was examined in this study. The semantic differential technique was used to rate a set of 10 occupational stimuli with 15 bipolar scales. A factor analysis of the stimuli yielded three occupational factors called Science, Things vs. People, and Social Welfare; a factor analysis of the scales indicated that the stimuli elicited Evaluation, Potency, and Activity responses. The three dimensions of affect were then used as the axes of a semantic space within which the occupational stimuli were located according to the unique affective meaning of each. The desirability of studying the structure of interests as a structure of occupational stimuli embedded within a structure of the responses they elicited was discussed.     

Duration discrimination in the context of age,sex, and cognition

It has been proposed that the perception of very short duration is governed by sensory mechanisms, whereas the perception of longer duration depends on cognitive capacities. Four duration discrimination tasks (modalities: visual, auditory; base duration: 100 ms, 1000 ms) were used to study the relation between time perception, age, sex, and cognitive abilities (alertness, visual and verbal working memory, general fluid reasoning) in 100 subjects aged between 21 and 84 years. Temporal acuity was higher (Weber fractions are lower) for longer stimuli and for the auditory modality. Age was related to the visual 100 ms condition only, with lower temporal acuity in elder participants. Alertness was significantly related to auditory and visual Weber fractions for shorter stimuli only. Additionally, visual working memory was a significant predictor for shorter visual stimuli. These results indicate that alertness, but also working memory, are associated with temporal discrimination of very brief duration.     

Forewarned is forearmed: Potential between and within sex discrimination

Effects of sex and concern for equal employment opportunity on responses to mailed job applicant resumes were examined. Applicant sex and concern for equal employment opportunity were systematically varied to yield four different resumes for two functionally equivalent applicants. One of the four resumes of the applicants was sent to 200 corporations. Sex of the applicant was identified using a female name and initials (neutral designation). Interest in equal employment opportunity was manipulated using a thesis title involving sex discrimination and no thesis reported. Results indicated that both the number of replies and number of positive responses were influenced by the interaction of an applicant's sex and interest in sex discrimination.     

Remedies for discrimination: Race,sex and affirmative action

Discrimination, and its intended remedy in affirmative action, are often discussed as if they operate equivalently for all target groups. However, the specific nature of inter-group relations between racial groups and between gender groups leads to differences both in the experience of racism and sexism and in the requirements for affirmative action programs. This article describes some of the legal differences between race and sex as social constructs, and explores the implications for workplace policies designed to remedy racial and gender-based discrimination. Research results have shown that, among Whites, there is more support for preference toward women than toward ethnic and racial minorities. Such attitudinal differences both reflect the different nature of intergroup relations and point to the different needs for affirmative action policies toward each group.     

Intensity seeking and novelty seeking: Their relationship to adolescent risk behavior and occupational interests

The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that individual differences in sensation seeking account for adolescents’ risk behavior and vocational interests. We relied on Arnett’s (1994) conceptualization of sensation seeking as involving a need for intensity and a need for novelty, neither of which includes the willingness to take risks. Self-report scales measuring intensity seeking, novelty seeking, impulsiveness, risk behavior and vocational interest were administered to 636 adolescents. New scales measuring intensity seeking (IS) and novelty seeking (NS) were used. Regression analyses showed that IS and to a lesser extent NS accounted for a small part of variance of risk behavior, independent of impulsiveness. IS and NS accounted for vocational interests. The discussion emphasizes the importance of disentangling sensation seeking as a trait from willingness to take risks when one intends to analyse the effect of the former on risk behavior.     

The relationship between body weight and perceived weight-related employment discrimination: The role of sex and race

This study provides unique empirical evidence regarding a growing concern internationally: weight discrimination in the workplace. Using survey data from a national sample of 2838 American adults, it responds to Puhl and Brownell’s [Puhl, R., & Brownell, K. D. (2001). Bias, discrimination, and obesity. Obesity Research, 9, 788-805] call for additional research investigating the prevalence of discriminatory experience among overweight employees, and to their more specific call for research that takes sex and race into account when examining weight discrimination. The results indicate that women are over 16 times more likely than men to perceive employment related discrimination and identify weight as the basis for their discriminatory experience. In addition, overweight respondents were 12 times more likely than normal weight respondents to report weight-related employment discrimination, obese 37 times more likely, and severely obese more than 100 times more likely. The implications of the study’s findings for organizations, policy makers, overweight employees, and career counselors are discussed, and future research directions suggested.     

The discriminative validity of a phallometric test for pedophilic interests among adolescent sex offenders against children

The authors examined the responses of adolescent sex offenders against children on a phallometric test of pedophilic interests. Participants were 40 adolescent sex offenders against children, 75 young adult sex offenders against children, and 39 young adult comparison participants. The responses of adolescents with female victims resembled those of comparison participants; adolescents with any male victims had larger relative responses to child stimuli than comparison participants. Young adult offenders, regardless of victim sex, had larger relative responses to child stimuli than comparison participants. Using a cut score of 0 (indicating equal or greater arousal to children than to adults), sensitivity was 42% for adolescents with any male victims, and specificity was 92% for the comparison participants. Results suggest phallometric testing can identify pedophilic interests among these adolescent sex offenders.     

Evaluating sex discrimination claims: the mediating role of attributions.

The role of attributions in judgments of sex discrimination was examined in 2 laboratory experiments. In Study 1, participants read 1 of 12 brief scenarios in which limited information about the strength of evidence against a fictitious corporation and occupational gender stereotype were manipulated. Results suggested that attributions mediated the relationships between participants' gender, strength of evidence, and discrimination judgments. In Study 2, participants were provided with 1 of 3 detailed, typewritten summaries of evidence presented in a sex discrimination trial. Results indicated that jurors' gender was again significantly related to attributions and to sex discrimination judgments even in the face of substantial objective information related to the case. The variance in observers' judgments associated with gender, however, appeared to be greatest when information about the organization's guilt or innocence was equivocal.     

Ethnic and sex differences in occupational stereotyping by elementary school children

As part of the formative evaluation of an educational television and print package, fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-grade public school Black, Hispanic, and Anglo children were surveyed regarding career choice and perceptions of the appropriateness of selected occupations for male and female adults and children. Responses were analyzed by ethnic membership and sex. Results indicated that in general Hispanic and Anglo girls chose more non traditional, higher-status occupations than Black girls. For boys, however, there was no clear interaction between sex and ethnic group in career choice. Girls and boys in all three ethnic groups indicated preference for careers stereotyped for their own sex, although girls—particularly Anglo girls—showed a greater tendency to cross sex-stereotyped lines. In addition, while both girls and boys in all three groups stereotyped as appropriate only for females those occupations regarded as traditionally female, traditionally male occupations were stereotyped more frequently by boys than by girls, who tended to consider them appropriate for both sexes. No differences appeared between ethnic groups in boys' responses to male and female adult occupations. In general Black girls tended to hold the most stereotypic views of job appropriateness, while Hispanic girls did not show a clear trend. Black boys tended to stereotype more than the other two groups with reference to child jobs on a boy-stereotype scale. Some differences also appeared in both boys' and girls' responses on the basis of a median split between high and low stereotypers on boy and girl child-job stereotype scales. In general, subjects who stereotyped child jobs tended also to stereotype adult occupations, suggesting a link between the child's current experience and the more remote world of adults. Implications of the findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

Women's reactions to discrimination from members of the same or opposite sex

The effects upon women's self-evaluations of experiencing varying severity of failure in interpersonal competition against male vs. female opponents were explored. The results supported the hypothesis that self-esteem in women is more vulnerable to interpersonal rejection from men as opposed to other women. Specifically, subjects reported lower self-esteem when severe failure was due to the actions of alleged, male opponents rather than female ones. Also, severe failure elicited less favorable self-evaluations than mild failure only when the female subjects confronted male opponents. Finally, contrary to a defensive self-presentation hypothesis, subjects did not respond to discrimination from men by presenting themselves as being discrepant from the stereotype of women. Instead, subjects who interpreted their failure as reflecting prejudice on the part of men evaluated themselves more favorably on positive traits underlying the female stereotype.