Recognizing the role of parents in developmental outcomes: a systems approach to evaluating the child with developmental disabilities

When developmental concerns arise in children, a clinical assessment focuses on the child's developmental profile to achieve three goals (1) determine diagnosis, (2) develop interventions, and (3) evaluate progress. Parents often have needs during this time that are not addressed by professionals because of the exclusive focus on the child during the evaluation. In this article, we suggest that clinicians take a "systems" approach to the assessment process by recognizing how the well being of family members can impact a child with a developmental disability. We review systems theory and its conceptualization of individual functioning and discuss how parental well-being differs according to child diagnosis. Finally we suggest a systems-based model to use during the assessment process.     

Recognizing emotion in faces: developmental effects of child abuse and neglect

The contributions to the recognition of emotional signals of (a) experience and learning versus (b) internal predispositions are difficult to investigate because children are virtually always exposed to complex emotional experiences from birth. The recognition of emotion among physically abused and physically neglected preschoolers was assessed in order to examine the effects of atypical experience on emotional development. In Experiment 1, children matched a facial expression to an emotional situation. Neglected children had more difficulty discriminating emotional expressions than did control or physically abused children. Physically abused children displayed a response bias for angry facial expressions. In Experiment 2, children rated the similarity of facial expressions. Control children viewed discrete emotions as dissimilar, neglected children saw fewer distinctions between emotions, and physically abused children showed the most variance across emotions. These results suggest that to the extent that children's experience with the world varies, so too will their interpretation and understanding of emotional signals.     

Closing the gaps: developmental psychopathology as a training model for clinical child psychology

Espouses developmental psychopathology as a framework for training our future leaders due to its emphasis on an ecological, transactional lifespan perspective, as well as interdisciplinary bridging and policy focus. This perspective, used as a framework for questioning and thinking about the complex interplay of psychological and social phenomena, provides a method for closing the gaps in training future psychologists as it allows for the development of niche expertise under an umbrella of the broader, ecological perspective. In an increasingly complex world of shrinking mental health dollars and growing severity of mental health problems for families and youth, clinical psychologists are needed more than ever to solve social problems. The current training paradigms in clinical child psychology programs need redirection and clarification for future psychologists to contribute meaningfully to science, practice, and policy. This article provides background in the history and influence of the developmental psychopathology perspective, as well as future implications for doctoral training programs in clinical psychology.     

Applications of ERP and fMRI techniques to developmental science

Event‐related potentials (ERPs) and functional magnetic resonance imaging are both measures of functional brain activation that have been applied to developmental questions. However, the two measures are not identical and reflect different aspects of neuronal function at a physiological level. There is increasing interest in using these methods in combination because of the complementary information they provide about brain activation. ERPs provide more detailed information about the timing of neural activity, while fMRI provides more detailed information about its spatial location. Thus, their combined use may provide more detailed spatio‐temporal information than either method alone. In this paper, we review the basic principles of ERP and fMRI and present selected studies from our own work to illustrate their strengths for studies of development. In addition, we discuss the potential benefits and special challenges of the combined use of electrophysiological and functional MRI techniques.     

Clara and William Stern's conception of a developmental science

Clara and William Stern were two pioneers of developmental psychology who are now almost forgotten, although their works have miraculously survived war and exile. The Sterns' theoretical conception of development and their extensive empirical work were inspired by the new discipline of child psychology which had been established in the nineteenth century. In this contribution we present the Sterns' academic work in developmental psychology with the aim of setting a counterbalance to the present mainstream in this discipline. We wish to show that it is certainly worthwhile to take a look back into history, and that “old” does not necessarily mean “obsolete”.     

Functional magnetic resonance imaging: basic principles of and application to developmental science

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has quickly become the preferred technique for imaging normal brain activity, especially in the typically developing child. This technique takes advantage of specific magnetic properties and physiological processes to generate images of brain activity. These images can be interpreted as a function of group or individual based differences to explore developmental patterns and/or cognitive abilities. In this paper we present an overview of the basic principles of fMRI and a discussion of what is currently known about the physiological bases of the resulting signal. We also report findings from developmental fMRI studies that examine the development of cognitive and neural systems underlying attention and memory. Behavioral performance and age‐related neural changes are examined independently in an attempt to disentangle developmental differences from individual variability in performance.     

Mixing qualitative and quantitative research in developmental science: uses and methodological choices

Multiple methods are vital to understanding development as a dynamic, transactional process. This article focuses on the ways in which quantitative and qualitative methodologies can be combined to enrich developmental science and the study of human development, focusing on the practical questions of "when" and "how." Research situations that may be especially suited to mixing qualitative and quantitative approaches are described. The authors also discuss potential choices for using mixed quantitative- qualitative approaches in study design, sampling, construction of measures or interview protocols, collaborations, and data analysis relevant to developmental science. Finally, they discuss some common pitfalls that occur in mixing these methods and include suggestions for surmounting them.     

Sampling in developmental science: Situations,shortcomings, solutions,and standards

Sampling is a key feature of every study in developmental science. Although sampling has far-reaching implications, too little attention is paid to sampling. Here, we describe, discuss, and evaluate four prominent sampling strategies in developmental science: population-based probability sampling, convenience sampling, quota sampling, and homogeneous sampling. We then judge these sampling strategies by five criteria: whether they yield representative and generalizable estimates of a study’s target population, whether they yield representative and generalizable estimates of subsamples within a study’s target population, the recruitment efforts and costs they entail, whether they yield sufficient power to detect subsample differences, and whether they introduce “noise” related to variation in subsamples and whether that “noise” can be accounted for statistically. We use sample composition of gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status to illustrate and assess the four sampling strategies. Finally, we tally the use of the four sampling strategies in five prominent developmental science journals and make recommendations about best practices for sample selection and reporting.     

The Cornell Institute for Research on Children: A vision of integrated developmental science

The Cornell Institute for Research on Children (CIRC) is an intellectual infrastructure funded by the National Science Foundation under the aegis of the Children's Research Initiative, which was spearheaded by Rodney R. Cocking. Cocking's vision of integrated developmental science is an integral part of CIRC's philosophy. CIRC aims to integrate knowledge and paradigms from a variety of fields (e.g., developmental psychology, economics, neuroscience, and pediatrics), which take different perspectives on similar issues (e.g., the effects of toxins on cognitive development), making it explicitly interdisciplinary. The object of CIRC studies is to apply research findings to social policy. To accomplish this, CIRC provides resources to enable teams of scholars from diverse fields to collaborate on policy-relevant questions. CIRC's approach begins by asking policy-makers to define questions for researchers to address, then shepherds the process by which scholars from various relevant disciplines are commissioned to work as a team to answer such questions. To demonstrate the strengths of this approach we describe the six components that comprise CIRC and provide an actual example of a project that CIRC has commissioned as well as a hypothetical example of a project that CIRC could undertake. This article is a progress report, written in an effort to disseminate information about CIRC's agenda.     

A developmental grammar for syllable structure in the production of child language.

The order of acquisition of Dutch syllable types by first language learners is analyzed as following from an initial ranking and subsequent rerankings of constraints in an optimality theoretic grammar. Initially, structural constraints are all ranked above faithfulness constraints, leading to core syllable (CV) productions only. Subsequently, faithfulness gradually rises to the highest position in the ranking, allowing more and more marked syllable types to appear in production. Local conjunctions of Structural constraints allow for a more detailed analysis.     

Drugs as instruments from a developmental child and adolescent psychiatric perspective

Developmental, epidemiological, and neurobiological studies indicate that the adaptive and maladaptive functions, as well as immediate and long-term consequences of drug use, may vary by age. Early initiation seems to be associated with a reduced ability to use drugs purposely in a temporally stable, non-addictive manner. Prevention strategies should consider social environmental factors and aim to delay age at initiation.     

Importance of developmental theory and investigation to research in clinical child psychology

Focuses on the developmental periods of infancy, childhood, and adolescence to offer illustrations of the advantages of using developmental theory and research to establish targets for research on intervention, assessment and treatment planning, and evaluation of effective strategies for prevention of childhood and later adult disorders. The importance for training clinical graduate students in developmental approaches to research is stressed, and hopes for a future of mutual contributions of developmental and clinical psychology are expressed in light of the fact that, after a troubled history of isolation from one another and even active denigration of one another's goals and methods, developmental and clinical psychology are exhibiting joint recognition of the advantages of collaborative research.     

Training the brain: practical applications of neural plasticity from the intersection of cognitive neuroscience, developmental psychology, and prevention science

Prior researchers have shown that the brain has a remarkable ability for adapting to environmental changes. The positive effects of such neural plasticity include enhanced functioning in specific cognitive domains and shifts in cortical representation following naturally occurring cases of sensory deprivation; however, maladaptive changes in brain function and development owing to early developmental adversity and stress have also been well documented. Researchers examining enriched rearing environments in animals have revealed the potential for inducing positive brain plasticity effects and have helped to popularize methods for training the brain to reverse early brain deficits or to boost normal cognitive functioning. In this article, two classes of empirically based methods of brain training in children are reviewed and critiqued: laboratory-based, mental process training paradigms and ecological interventions based upon neurocognitive conceptual models. Given the susceptibility of executive function disruption, special attention is paid to training programs that emphasize executive function enhancement. In addition, a third approach to brain training, aimed at tapping into compensatory processes, is postulated. Study results showing the effectiveness of this strategy in the field of neurorehabilitation and in terms of naturally occurring compensatory processing in human aging lend credence to the potential of this approach. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).     

The evolved developmental niche and child sociomoral outcomes in Chinese 3-year-olds

Responsive parenting is known to lead to multiple positive child outcomes, including sociomoral development. We examined the extent to which additional caregiving practices are also critical for positive sociomoral outcomes in early childhood. We looked specifically at what we call the evolved developmental niche (EDN), as described for young children by anthropologists, which includes frequent touch, breastfeeding, caregiver responsiveness, multiple adult caregivers, play, and natural childbirth. We collected behaviour and attitude data on these practices from 383 mothers of 3-year-olds in China using a self-report maternal survey. Mothers also completed standardized measures of their child's behaviour regulation, empathy, and conscience. We found significant effects for most caregiving practices and attitudes on child outcomes after controlling for maternal income and education, and most effects remained significant after controlling for responsivity. These findings suggest that practices representative of the evolved developmental niche may be important, above and beyond responsivity alone, for fostering sociomoral development.