Fearing,not loving,the reflection: Narcissism,self-esteem,and self-discrepancy theory

This study used self-discrepancy theory to explore self-esteem and narcissism. College students (N = 450) completed measures of self-discrepancy, affect, self-esteem, and narcissism. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses found that self-discrepancies explained variance in self-esteem and narcissism beyond that explained by affect. Results also indicated that the actual-ideal and actual-undesired self-discrepancies predicted self-esteem, while the actual-undesired self-discrepancy was the only significant predictor of narcissism. This study provides evidence of incremental validity for self-discrepancies in measuring self-esteem and narcissism. It also suggests that narcissism is associated with an undesired, not an ideal, self-concept.     

The Grandiose Narcissism Scale: A Global and Facet-Level Measure of Grandiose Narcissism

The Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) is the primary measure of grandiose narcissism (GN) despite possessing numerous limitations. Here we present a new 33-item measure of GN called the Grandiose Narcissism Scale (GNS) that exhibits a reproducible seven-factor structure that maps on to Raskin and Terry’s (1988) seven factor model. GNS subscales exhibit high reliability, with several being substantially more reliable than their NPI counterparts. As a full-scale, the GNS correlates with other variables in a way that is consistent with the theoretical portrait of GN. Additionally, two of the GNS subscales (entitlement, exploitativeness) are shown to uniquely predict independent measures of entitlement and exploitativeness, suggesting good subscale validity. Cumulatively, the GNS represents a viable complement or alternative to the NPI.     

Color measurement and color theory: II. Opponent-colors theory

Quantitative opponent-colors theory is based on cancellation of redness by admixture of a standard green, of greenness by admixture of a standard red, of yellowness by blue, and of blueness by yellow. The fundamental data are therefore the equilibrium colors: the set A₁ of lights that are in red/green equilibrium and the set A₂ of lights that are in yellow/blue equilibrium. The result that a cancellation function is linearly related to the color-matching functions can be proved from more basic axioms, particularly, the closure of the set of equilibrium colors under linear operations. Measurement analysis treats this as a representation theorem, in which the closure properties are axioms and in which the colorimetric homomorphism has the cancellation functions as two of its coordinates.Consideration of equivalence relations based on opponent cancellation leads to a further step: analysis of equivalence relations based on direct matching of hue attributes. For additive whiteness matching, this yields a simple extension of the representation theorem, in which the third coordinate is luminance. For other attributes, precise representation theorems must await a better qualitative characterization of various nonlinear phenomena, especially the veiling of one hue attribute by another and the various hue shifts.     

Narcissism and Grace: Inherent Incompatibility

Narcissistic conditions are highly prevalent in clinical treatment settings. However, most developmental theories include only maturational and interpersonal aspects of functioning without including spiritual and Christian-based factors. In working with narcissistic disorders, it is necessary for the patient to incorporate grace and forgiveness into their sense of self, through the transmuting internalization of vicarious introspection of the therapist. This paper asserts that grace is a necessary and vital prerequisite for developmental and spiritual growth. Specific examples are included to help therapists identify and work within the therapeutic transference to help the patient integrate grace into their identity.     

自恋与心理健康:适应性自恋与病理性自恋的不同作用

目的:探讨适应性自恋与病理性自恋对个体心理健康的不同影响。方法:750名大学生完成了一套由自恋人格问卷(NPI)、病理性自恋量表(PNI)和症状自评量表(SCL-90)组成的测验。利用结构方程模型对变量间的关系进行分析。结果表明:病理性自恋的二阶因子自恋易损性对个体心理健康具有显著的负向预测作用,自恋易损性水平越高,个体心理健康水平越低。自恋夸大性和适应性自恋(自恋人格问卷,NPI)对心理健康的正向预测作用达到边缘显著,自恋夸大性和适应性自恋得分越高,心理健康水平越高。结论:病理性自恋的二阶因子自恋易损性对心理健康具有明显的破坏作用,而自恋夸大性和正常/适应性自恋可能对心理健康存在微弱的保护作用。     

The Culture of Narcissism Revisited: Transformations of Narcissism in Contemporary Psychospirituality

In this paper, I trace the debate over narcissism in deinstitutionalized and heavily psychologized spiritualities. First, I summarize how Sigmund Freud’s discussion with Romain Rolland about the “oceanic feeling” established the classical psychoanalytic view of mysticism as a regression to primary narcissism. Second, I review how Heinz Kohut’s radical reconceptualization of narcissism has played a seminal role in socio-cultural interpretations of modern psychologized spirituality. Third, I explore how a contemporary psychospiritual tradition, A.H. Almaas’s Diamond Approach, details the relationship between narcissism and mysticism. Finally, I reflect on the benefits of a dialogical approach between psychoanalysis and spirituality arguing that the types of integrative psychospirituality envisioned by Romain and developed more fully by Almaas have the potential to facilitate the mature transformation of narcissism.     

Fragmentation and Narcissism

The paper focuses on the articulation of two areas of theory: that of development of the self through fragmentation and differentiation and that of narcissism in early psychological development, and its pathology later in life. Jungian ideas concerning the self and individuation (including those developed by Fordham) are linked with psychoanalytic ideas, notably Kohut's, and related to the concepts of narcissism and ego-development. In this the focus is on a revaluation of the negative overtones of 'fragmentation' and 'narcissism' and an indication of their place in the process of individuation. It is pointed out that a varying emphasis in the analyst on what are called the biological and ethological aspects of these theories will have important implications for the treatment of patients. The theoretical position is illustrated by a lengthy clinical example involving a case of early injury to the self which suggests the pathology of narcissistic character disorder. But the case also illustrates the contribution to development of fragmentation and narcissism, which are revalued here as the 'part-for-the-whole' and as one of the 'motors' of individuation. Working within a perspective that prioritizes the importance of the drive towards relationship, it is recommended that the analyst learns to respect and value phenomenologically the contribution of fragmentation and narcissism to normal development, if true healing is to occur.     

The Wax and Wane of Narcissism: Grandiose Narcissism as a Process or State

Though grandiose narcissism has predominantly been studied in structural terms—focused on individuals' general tendencies to be more or less narcissistic—we tested whether it also has a meaningful process or state component. Using a daily diary study methodology and multilevel modeling (N = 178 undergraduates, 146 female; M_age = 18.86, SD = 2.21), we examine whether there is significant variability in daily state narcissism and whether this variability relates systematically to other psychological states (i.e., self‐esteem, stress) and daily events. We assessed state narcissism and daily experiences over a 10‐day period. We observed significant within‐person variability in daily narcissism. Notably, this variability was not simply random error, as it related systematically to other psychological states and daily events. Specifically, state narcissism was higher when people experienced more positive agentic outcomes (e.g., having power over someone) or more positive communal outcomes (e.g., helping someone with a problem). State narcissism was lower on days people experienced greater felt stress. These relations held when state self‐esteem, gender, and trait narcissism were controlled. These findings suggest that grandiose narcissism has a meaningful process or state component.     

Narcissism and celebrity

We used the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) to assess the degree of narcissism among celebrities. Results indicate that celebrities are significantly more narcissistic than MBA students and the general population. Contrary to findings in the population at large, in which men are more narcissistic than women, female celebrities were found to be significantly more narcissistic than their male counterparts. Reality television personalities had the highest overall scores on the NPI, followed by comedians, actors, and musicians. Further, our analyses fail to show any relationship between NPI scores and years of experience in the entertainment industry, suggesting that celebrities may have narcissistic tendencies prior to entering the industry.     

Dreams of Glory: Narcissism and Politics

The arena of politics provides a natural environment for individuals with significant narcissistic personality traits, individuals who are consumed by dreams of glory. This article first reviews developmental pathways to the wounded self, using the example of Saddam Hussein, whose traumatic background led to the defensive adaptation of a fixated grandiose self. It also considers individuals who were raised to be special, such as President Woodrow Wilson and General Douglas MacArthur, and who were the vehicles of their parents’ success. The article then addresses the psychology of charismatic leader–follower relationships, where there is a natural fit between the mirror-hungry leader, seeking adulation, and his ideal-hungry followers, who feel incomplete unless they are attached to a great other. The chapter emphasizes the impaired interpersonal relationships of narcissistic characters, and how this can contribute to an imperfect evaluation of political reality, as the leadership circle tells the leader what he wants to hear rather than what he needs to hear.     

The porn retreat: Narcissism and adolescence

The ready availability and intense imagery of contemporary pornography raises considerable public concern about its effect on society in general and on the minds of young people in particular. This paper seeks to understand its transgressive nature and its widespread appeal from a psychoanalytic perspective with reference to Chasseguet- Smirgel’s (1984) concept of the ‘anal-sadistic universe’ and Kohut’s (1972) theory of narcissism. The world of pornography can be seen as providing the individual with the possibility of narcissistic retreat from the frustrations and humiliations of the outside world. In this essentially self-enclosed illusory inner experience, he or she can conjure up a fantasy of unchallenged omnipotence in which, through the screen, anything can be arranged and commanded. Pornography feeds on normal adolescent narcissistic preoccupations; it provides a special, private place in which to hide and play out various fantasies without restraint. This is much more problematic for those adolescents who are more insecure and vulnerable and whose need to take flight from the external world and seek in pornographic fantasy a sense of grandeur and sexual potency is all the greater. It is these adolescents who become so much more immersed in their porn retreat and are so much more at risk of suffering emotional harm.     

Objectivism in information utilization: theory and measurement

A self-report scale was constructed and validated that measures individual differences in objectivism--the tendency to base one's judgments and beliefs on empirical information and rational considerations. Validity data showed that, compared to people who score low on the Objectivism Scale, highly objective individuals enjoy thinking more, rely more on observable facts when making decisions, and place less emphasis on subjective and intuitive styles of decision making. Among graduate students in psychology, objectivism correlated positively with ratings of research-oriented careers, but negatively with ratings of mental health careers; also, highly objective students were more critical of nonobjective psychological assessment techniques and placed greater importance on research. Objectivism also predicted preferences for newspaper articles, college course selections, and the criteria respondents use when making decisions.     

Narcissism and unprovoked aggression

It is widely accepted that narcissists become aggressive when they experience ego‐threat. However, there is surprisingly little empirical research on the relationship between narcissism and aggression. Equivocal findings suggest that aggression in narcissists either occurs only in response to provocation, or regardless of provocation. One‐hundred and thirty‐seven collegiate men completed the Narcissistic Personality Inventory followed by a sham aggression paradigm, which afforded them the opportunity shock, or refrain entirely from shocking an ostensible opponent confederate. Participants were identified as “unprovoked aggressors,” “retaliatory aggressors,” or “nonaggressors” contingent on when and if they chose to administer electrical shocks to the confederate. Results indicated that participants who were high on narcissistic traits were more likely to be unprovoked aggressors than their low narcissism counterparts. Results are discussed in relation to threatened egotism theory and call for more research on narcissism, aggression, and the moderating effect of provocation. Aggr. Behav. 36:414–422, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Narcissism and body image

This research examined the relationship between narcissism, as measured by the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI; Raskin & Hall, 1979), and body image, as measured by the Body-Self Relations Questionnaire ( Winstead & Cash, 1984), in a nonclinical sample of college students. Also examined were narcissism's relationships to masculinity, femininity, and self-esteem. Results indicated that more narcissistic individuals had more favorable body images and were higher in masculinity and self-esteem. No gender differences were observed in either the levels of narcissism or its body image correlates. Overall, the findings suggest that the NPI measures “adjusted” narcissism rather than the “maladaptive” narcissism emphasized in theoretical and clinical accounts of the construct.     

Narcissism and superego development

To elucidate the role of the superego in th maintenance of narcissistic equilibrium, we reviewed Freud's ideas about narcissism and the superego as well as the relevant theories of Kohut, Kernberg, and certain ego psychologists. These latter authors offer an alternative mode of understanding narcissism more consistent with Freud's structural theory, one in which signal affects and superego functioning play a central role in normal development and in the pathogenesis of narcissistic disturbances. Early steps in superego formation were then examined schematically to elucidate the interaction of environmental influences and emerging psychic structure. We suggested that the first step in a developmental line toward superego formation is based on the affective qualities experienced in the course of self-object differentiation. Subsequent steps examined were introject and ego-ideal formation; compliance with th object; compliance with the introject; identification with the introject and the ego ideal; and finally, with oedipal resolution, the integration of superego nuclei into a progressively structuralized autonomous superego system. This system achieves growing independence from the drives and from pressures from early introjects during the course of latency, and functions to maintain the demands of the conscience and the standards of the ego ideal; rewards or punishments result when these demands and standards are or are not met. The final stage briefly considered here was the revision, modification, and elaboration of moral codes and the ego ideal as part of the adolescent process. Narcissistic vulnerabilities at various stages were pointed out in an attempt to stress that a particular clinical picture in later phases of development or adulthood may derive from any of several development points of origin and from one or more etiological factors.