Sex differences in latent cognitive abilities ages 5 to 17: Evidence from the Differential Ability Scales—Second Edition

Sex differences in the latent general and broad cognitive abilities underlying the Differential Ability Scales, Second Edition were investigated for children and youth ages 5 through 17. Multi-group mean and covariance structural equation modeling was used to investigate sex differences in latent cognitive abilities as well as changes in these differences across age. Most broad abilities showed mean differences across the sexes, and all such differences varied across ages. Girls showed an advantage on the processing speed (Gs) first-order residual factor. Girls also showed advantages at some ages on free-recall memory, a narrow ability of long term retrieval (Glr). Boys showed a developmentally-related advantage on a visual-spatial ability (Gv) first-order residual factor, depending on age. Younger girls showed an advantage on short-term memory (Gsm). No statistically significant sex differences were shown on the latent comprehension-knowledge (Gc) factor, or on a second-order, latent g factor. Boys showed larger variances for several broad abilities, some substantial, but those differences were not statistically significant.     

Attitudes and attitude change of indigenous teacher trainees in Papua New Guinea

The study reported used the semantic differential as an instrument to collect data for an examination of attitudes and attitude change of indigenous teacher trainees at Port Moresby Teachers College. The sample consisted of three Intakes of students, differing widely in exposure to Western education and experience of the teaching role. Teaching in College was almost entirely the responsibility of Australian academics. Analysis of the results showed a strong similarity between Intakes on pre-test factor patterns. The major factor in each case was clearly identifiable as Osgood's evaluative factor. Two other factors gave evidence of splintering of the evaluative dimension. The basic three factor pattern of Osgood was not established. Ten evaluative scales were identified and used in calculation of pre and posttest attitude scores on the sixty concepts rated. Tests of significance of differences between means and variances were carried out by Intakes and, in the case of one Intake which was made up of males and females, by sex. Results were described and tentative explanations offered taking account of Intake differences, cultural setting and the possible effect of teacher/student cross-cultural differences.     

What cognitive and numerical skills best define learning disabilities in mathematics? / ¿Qué habilidades cognitivas y numéricas definen mejor las dificultades de aprendizaje en matemáticas?

Differentiating students with mathematical learning disabilities (MLD) from those with low achievement (LA) is still an unresolved issue. This study explored whether the specific combination of certain cognitive and numerical skills can classify students with MLD, with LA, and without MLD. In order to do this, an analysis was carried out of the performance of 756 Spanish students in grades two to six, on different numerical and cognitive tasks. Two factors were extracted using a principal component analysis of the tasks: a semantic-cognitive factor and a verbal-automation factor. The results obtained from comparing the groups showed that students with MLD and LA demonstrated significant differences in the semantic-cognitive factor, and that these differences were consistent across grade levels. In contrast, there were no differences between groups in the automatic-verbal factor. These results confirm that the groups are not only quantitatively different but also qualitatively different.     

Racial Differences in Responses to the Caregiver Strain Questionnaire

The aim of this study was to examine differences in responses to the Caregiver Strain Questionnaire (CGSQ) between African American and White caregivers of children with emotional and behavioral challenges. Significant item- and scale-level differences were detected across groups with African Americans consistently reporting less strain. We examined whether these differences were more likely due to nonequivalent measurement than to real differences in the experience of caregiver strain. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that the model fit the data well for both racial groups, but there were some differences in structural components. Internal consistency was equivalent across the groups. In an examination of criterion validity, regression analyses showed that African American caregivers experienced a slower rate of increase in objective caregiver strain at a given increase in child internalizing problems. No other race differences were found in the regression analyses. In general, we conclude that the CGSQ can be useful for detecting caregiver strain and identifying family support needs for both White and African American caregivers. Differences across groups in reports of caregiver strain, however, call for more research on racial differences in the impact on the family of caring for a child with emotional and behavioral disorders.     

Differentiation of affective and denotative meaning systems and their influence in personality ratings.

The present study presents an empirical example of the dichotomy of affective and denotative meaning systems and their influence on individual differences in personality ratings. The three-mode factor analytic technique with a newly developed transformation methodology for the scale mode was applied to data collected by Hogenraad from 50 French-speaking Belgians, rating 40 personality concepts against 40 semantic differential scales. Results indicated that three affective dimensions (evaluation, potency, and activity) proved to be dominant in the indigenous factor structure of personality impressions and that three dimensions in the "other" space, orthogonal to affect, are clearly interpretable denotative semantic features of personalities. Three idealized individual differences on interactions of these two meaning systems with four concept factors were highlighted by the final rotated inner core matrix. The present methodology along with the semantic differential technique and three-mode factor analysis can be applied to various types of subjects and/or concept domains for better understanding of intra- and intercultural differences.     

Racial Differences on the Conners Teacher Rating Scale

Factor congruence and mean differences on the Conners Teacher Rating Scale were assessed across African-American and Caucasian school children. Factor analyses conducted separately by gender revealed similar factors across races for males and females. The main differences in factor structure within gender were the presence of an Antisocial factor in black males and an Inattention factor in white females. Across both males and females, teachers tended to rate black children higher than white children on factors relating to externalizing behaviors. Whether mean differences are a result of teacher bias or actual behavioral differences in the classroom needs further research.     

Gender and Grade Differences in Latent Ability Variables

Scores in ability tests administered to students in grades 4–9 were simultaneously factor-analyzed within twelve gender by grade groups. Gender and grade differences in means and variances were studied for five latent ability factors according to a hierarchical model and compared with means and variances in the observed scores.
Girls had higher means than boys in a general ability factor (G), in a residual general speed factor (Gs') and in a residual factor of numerical facility (N'). Boys were higher in a residual vocabulary factor (V') and most of all in a residual spatial visualization factor (Vz'). Boys had larger variances than girls in N' and Gs'. In general the differences in means and variances were in the same direction for the closest corresponding observed scores, but some striking discrepancies between latent and observed scores were found. As a rule, the discrepancies were due to the complexity of the tests where one factor could compensate for another.
In the discussion it was pointed out that some of the differences found were likely to have changed between the testing in the late 1950s and the present. Nevertheless the demonstration of the divergence between analyses of latent vs. observed scores remains valid.     

Validation of a Chinese Version of the Psychological Sense of School Membership (C-PSSM): Tests of Measurement Invariance and Latent Mean Differences

This study examined the factorial structure of the Chinese version psychological sense of school membership scale (C-PSSM) (Cheung and Hui Asia Pacific Education Review, 4(1), 67–74, 2003). Five hundred and thirty-four university students from Hong Kong completed an 18-item C-PSSM and data were analyzed using exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis. In addition, tests of measurement invariance and latent mean differences were performed. From the results of the CFA, two items were deleted and a 3-factor, 16-item C-PSSM model was found to have an acceptable fit, with acceptable level of internal consistency for each factor and the overall scale. Measurement invariance (configural, metric, and partial scalar) of the 16-item C-PSSM was supported and the tests of latent mean differences revealed no statistical significance in factor score differences between male and female participants in this study. Overall, this study contributed to the literature by generating new insights on to the psychological sense of school membership through validating the C-PSSM on a sample from a culture and age group different from those reported in the current literature.     

The Factor Structure of MASC Youth Report in Norwegian School Children

Identifying children with symptoms of anxiety before they develop clinical disorders is important. The objective of our study was to examine the latent factor structure of the MASC (youth report version) in a large self-selected sample of school children in 4th to 6th grade, and examine if the measure had a comparable factor structure for gender and age. Gender and age differences in anxiety symptoms were also examined. Children (N?=?1686, 53.8% female) were recruited from schools during pretest of an ongoing randomized, controlled, indicative intervention. Latent variable modelling was used to determine the underlying concepts of the MASC. We found good model fit for the four-factor model, however some items on the Harm/Avoidance scale had low factor loadings. Invariance analysis indicated that the MASC had similar factor structure (comparable meaning) for boys and girls and for younger and older children in this sample. Girls scored significantly higher than boys on all subscales and on the Total Anxiety scale. Age differences were only found on the Separation Anxiety scale. Overall, the original four-factor structure of the MASC was confirmed within a large sample of school children and was invariant across gender and age. However, the Harm/avoidance scale warrants some attention. The MASC is a potentially useful measure to be used for screening purposes in a school setting.     

An exploratory study of differences in emotional intelligence in U.S. and Norwegian undergraduate students

The present study explored sex and cultural differences in Emotional Intelligence scores in samples from Norway (n = 297) and the United States (n = 234). Significant main effects for sex were found in overall Emotional Intelligence scores and the Empathy factor. In addition, results revealed a small but significant effect for culture in the Self-control factor, as well as support for an interaction between sex and culture in the Handling Relationships factor. The results are discussed in light of cultural differences between U.S. and Norwegian societies.     

Morningness in German and Spanish students: a comparative study

Humans show pronounced individual differences in circadian orientation. Transcultural comparisons are interesting since biological (or environmental) factors together with cultural ones may contribute to differences in morningness–eveningness. We compared Spanish and German undergraduates using the Composite Scale of Morningness (CSM) to assess circadian preferences. Confirmatory and multiple groups confirmatory factor analysis were used to assess factor structure and structural invariance across countries. The results showed that a three‐factor model of morningness best characterises the CSM structure of both samples. Partial factorial invariance (factor loadings) across countries was demonstrated for the factors ‘morningness’ and ‘morning alertness’. Scores of both factors were higher in German students. Potential cultural and biological explanations for the differences are discussed. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

On the Empirical Relation Between Spatial Ability and Sex Differences in Other Aspects of Cognitive Performance

The hypothesis that sex differences in field independence and mental arithmetic can be accounted for by sex differences in spatial ability was supported for a group of 46 female and 35 male undergraduates. Sex-typing does not appear to be strongly related to spatial ability for either sex. There is a possibility of the existence of a field-independence trait independent of spatial ability, particularly among females; however, if such a trait does exist there do not appear to be significant sex differences with respect to it. Factor analysis indicates that tests of spatial ability, field independence, and mental arithmetic emerge together in a spatial ability factor. Sex differences in the factor structure of nine measures, most of which typically display sex differences (spatial ability, field independence, mental arithmetic, vocabulary, verbal and nonverbal creativity, femininity, and achievement motivation) were largely the result of differences with respect to a spatial factor.     

A Factor-Analytic Investigation of Child Animism

Summary

From a factor analysis of 33 variables on 83 first-grade children an animism factor, involving children's conceptions of life, was identified. Animism was found to be relatively independent of operational thought, Piagetiantype problem solving, and the ability to give causal explanations of physical phenomena. In a second study, a similar animism factor emerged from a factor analysis of 11 variables, Animistic conceptions were unrelated to children's reasoning about various interpersonal situations: i.e., morality, justice, and psychological causality. In addition to an interpretation of the factor involving possible differences in criteria used for life attribution, the specificity of the factor was underscored.     

Examination of the content of individualism/collectivism scales in cultural comparisons of the USA and Japan

The definitions of individualism/collectivism and the content of scale items used to assess them could explain the lack of cross-cultural differences reported in some research. Specifically, existing scales may not adequately assess expected cultural differences. In study 1 , a new scale was given in Japan and the USA. Three factors were identified in both cultures. Japanese scored higher on the others focus factor but scored lower on the helping others factor than the US Americans. In study 2 , a forced choice version replicated results in study 1 . In studies 3 and 4 , the factor structure and cultural differences were replicated and the convergent and the divergent validities of the scale were examined. Results indicate that Japanese may be more others oriented depending on the item content.     

Expertise, visual search, and information pick-up in squash

The visual search characteristics of expert and novice squash players were compared in two experiments. In the first experiment subjects were required to predict the forthcoming direction and force of an opponent's stroke from a film display. This film display was designed to simulate the normal display available to the defending player in squash and involved the use of variable temporal cut-offs to force the subjects to use advance cues in their prediction. Systematic differences in the information pick-up of the experts and novices were observed on the film task but these differences were achieved with only relatively minor between-group variations in visual search strategy. In the second experiment, set in the natural field setting, no expert-novice differences in either fixation distribution, order, or duration were observed on a comparable prediction task. This provided further support for the conclusion that the limiting factor in the perceptual performance of the novices is not an inappropriate search strategy but rather an inability to make full use of the information available from fixated display features. Some practical implications of these findings for the squash coach and player are considered.     

Affective components of the human-animal relationship in animal husbandry: development and validation of a questionnaire

The aim of the present study was to identify the main dimensions of the human-animal relationship in animal husbandry and to test the hypothesis of a coherent system linking attitudes and feelings. A second objective was to assess interindividual differences which could be linked to socioenvironmental or personal factors. The 26-item questionnaire was administered to 197 animal farmers (143 men, 54 women, 3.8% under 25 years old, 45.2% under 40 years, 44.2% under 60 years and 7.1% over 60 years). To include even farmers not in the official agricultural registries, we used a random selection procedure. A principal component analysis of responses followed by varimax rotation yielded two factors accounting for 30.7% of the total variance, a Friendship factor and a Power relationship factor. Significant differences on the Friendship factor were observed between groups by sex of farmers, education, size of the production system, and region of production. There were also differences on the Power relationship factor between groups by age and education. These results validate a questionnaire with 21 items, allowing measurement of positive and negative affects of farmers towards their animals.     

Developmental trajectories in toddlers' self-restraint predict individual differences in executive functions 14 years later: a behavioral genetic analysis

We examined whether self-restraint in early childhood predicted individual differences in 3 executive functions (EFs; inhibiting prepotent responses, updating working memory, and shifting task sets) in late adolescence in a sample of approximately 950 twins. At ages 14, 20, 24, and 36 months, the children were shown an attractive toy and told not to touch it for 30 s. Latency to touch the toy increased with age, and latent class growth modeling distinguished 2 groups of children that differed in their latencies to touch the toy at all 4 time points. Using confirmatory factor analysis, we decomposed the 3 EFs (measured with latent variables at age 17 years) into a Common EF factor (isomorphic to response inhibition ability) and 2 factors specific to updating and shifting. Less-restrained children had significantly lower scores on the Common EF factor, equivalent scores on the Updating-Specific factor, and higher scores on the Shifting-Specific factor than did the more-restrained children. The less-restrained group also had lower IQ scores, but this effect was entirely mediated by the EF components. Twin models indicated that the associations were primarily genetic in origin for the Common EF variable but split between genetics and nonshared environment for the Shifting-Specific variable. These results suggest a biological relation between individual differences in self-restraint and EFs, one that begins early in life and persists into late adolescence.     

Applicability of olweu' aggression inventory in a sample of chinese primary school children

A sample of Chinese children in Grade 4 (155 boys and 135 girls with an average age of 10.3 years) completed Olweu' Aggression Inventory, an instrument developed for the assessment of aggressive and aggression controlling behavior tendencies in a Western culture. Results indicated that the questionnaire gave quite meaningful information when used with the Chinese children. Two interpretable factors, general aggression and aggression control, were derived; the pattern of factor loadings was essentially the same for boys and girls. The internal consistency reliabilities of the two factor scales were in the 0.80s and 0.70s, respectively. Overall, the findings indicated that there were distinct measurable individual differences among Chinese children in the domain of aggression—in spite of strong societal pressures against aggressive behavior and towards aggression control. However, some results suggested that aggression was a somewhat more global, or less differentiated, phenomenon for the Chinese as compared with the Swedish children. The two main factor scales were related meaningfully to other self report dimensions such as positive attitude to school and negative relations with parents. In all probability, the pattern of findings gave a valid picture of the behavior and attitudes of the Chinese children: By and large they were nonaggressive, well-behaved, ambitious, friendly, prosocial, and exerted strong control over aggressive feelings and behavior tendencies. In possible conflicts with adults, they were likely to take a humble and submissive attitude. These findings agree well with the impressions of Western observers and with what can be expected on the basis of the typical socialization patterns found in the People's Republic of China. Furthermore, quite marked sex differences in aggression were obtained and a partial correlation analysis showed that the higher aggression level of the boys could only to a very limited degree be explained by their lower level of aggression control or inhibitions. Generally, the sex differences in aggression were interpreted to reflect genetic variations in basic predispositions in boys and girls that had been subtly enlarged by more or less clear, sex-linked differences in environmental conditions.     

Sex differences in self-reported anxiety for different situations and modes of response

Abstract.— A review was made of recent studies employing different S-R inventories of anxiety and fear. The review pointed to the need for studies of sex differences for inventories where both situations and modes of response are selected separately. Such an analysis was made in the present study with regard to sex differences in both level and variability of self-reported anxiety for both total scores, factor scores, and single situation and response scales. The Ss were 116 adolescents, about 16 years of age. The inventory comprised 17 situations and 18 modes of response. With a few minor exceptions the analyses showed consistent sex differences throughout, with girls scoring higher than boys and showing greater interindividual variability in reported anxiety. Among other things, the results are discussed in relation to sex differences reported for physiological variables.     

Qualitative and quantitative sex differences in self-reported aggressive behavioral characteristics

Aggressive behavioral characteristics were assessed in a large group of men and women by a self-report instrument, the Aggression Inventory. Significant gender differences appeared on four factors in which men reported more physical aggression and verbal aggression than did women. Further, men had higher scores on measures of impulsiveness and lack of patience than women, while women reported being more likely to avoid confrontation. In addition to these quantitative sex differences in self-reported behavior, factor analyses indicated qualitative differences by sex, wherein most of the variance for women centered on verbal aggression, while physical aggression was the first factor for men.