Psychobiosocial experiences in sport: Development and initial validation of a semantic differential scale

ObjectivesTo develop and validate the Psychobiosocial Experience Semantic Differential scale in sport (PESD-Sport), a new measure to assess discrete emotions and performance-related experiences in sport as conceptualized within the individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOF; Hanin, 2000, 2007, 2010) framework.MethodIn Study 1, we developed a preliminary 53-item version of the scale using a semantic differential format in the construction of the items pertaining to 12 psychobiosocial modalities. We chose this format to attain a clear representation of psychobiosocial states between opposites along perceived performance functionality (i.e., functional, dysfunctional). The preliminary scale was then administered in a sample of 280 athletes. In Study 2, a 30-item scale derived from Study 1 was cross validated in a second independent sample of 302 athletes.ResultsFindings from Study 1 provided preliminary evidence of factorial and construct validity for a 10-modality, 30-item model (3 items for each modality). Findings from Study 2 supported the factor structure of a model containing 30 items loading into 10 modalities (i.e., unpleasant/pleasant emotions, confidence, anxiety, assertiveness, cognitive, bodily-somatic, motor-behavioral, operational, communicative, and social support). Convergent, discriminant, and nomological validity of the PESD-Sport was also demonstrated.ConclusionBased on a substantive theoretical framework, this new measure of discrete emotions and performance-related experiences can advance the knowledge on the relationship between psychobiosocial states and performance. The scale could also inform applied interventions aimed at improving psychobiosocial experiences for performance enhancement.     

Emotion self-regulation and athletic performance: An application of the IZOF model

Objectives: To examine the effects of multimodal and individualised self-regulation strategies upon emotions and bodily symptoms of athletes’ psychobiosocial state and performance, within the Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning (IZOF) framework.Design: A multiple baseline single-subject design.Method: Eight male high-level Italian athletes (four goalkeeper roller-skating hockey players and four gymnasts) participated in the study. Procedures involved: (a) recall of idiosyncratic emotions and autonomic symptoms associated with best and worst performances; (b) identification of spontaneous idiosyncratic psychological preparation procedures; (c) monitoring of precompetitive emotions across a competitive season; (d) implementation of an individual multimodal self-regulation programme; and (e) a social validation interview.Results: Preliminary empirical support was provided for the effectiveness of a mental training strategy to optimise precompetitive psychobiosocial states and to improve competition performance. Findings also supported the in/out-of-zone notion applied to perceived emotions and bodily symptoms.Conclusions: Further research is needed to replicate and extend study findings, explore additional concepts incorporated in the recent developments of the IZOF-psychobiosocial model, and develop effective intervention strategies.     

Stress,Coping, and Emotions on the World Stage: The Experience of Participating in a Major Soccer Tournament Penalty Shootout

This study was designed to capture the first-hand experiences of stressors, coping, and emotions that elite professional soccer players have during a major soccer penalty shootout. Eight players who each took part in an important European Championships penalty shootout were interviewed. The results showed that the experience of stressors, coping, and emotions changed extensively throughout the event. Moreover, the participants experienced a series of different stressors, some of which were specific to the penalty shootout, and they employed a variety of coping strategies. Anxiety was the most common emotion. Practitioners can use these results to help design valid simulation protocols.     

The use of reflection-card by elite youth basketball players,head coach and team manager: effects on players’ performance and perceptions of users

The purpose of the present paper was to test the effectiveness of the r-cards in sport performance, and to examine what kind of benefits and challenges the head coach, team manager and female basketball players (N = 12) faced when using the r-cards. Mixed methods were employed to gather specific data to answer the research questions. Inferential statistical analyses were conducted to examine whether players’ performances in terms of their targeted defensive rebound percentage and free-throw percentage differed across the five matches played. No significant differences were found. However, evidence from the qualitative data provides a contrasting but insightful perspective. Subjectively, the r-cards strategy was seen as beneficial because it improved the team’s performance and preparations, helped the players in goal setting, identification of weaknesses, and recognition of effort. In contrast, realistic goal setting, irrelevance of some reflection questions, effort recognition, and feedback to head coach were found challenging in r-cards usage. The paper closes with a critical discussion on the implications for future use of r-cards in the field of sport coaching.     

Tension-stress,effort-stress and mood profiling with an elite javelin performer

Objective: The relationships between mood profile and athletic performance have never been clear. The purpose of this paper is to study the effect of these emotional mental states on sport performance from a different theoretical and methodological perspective from that used in previous studies.Method and design: We examined the relationships between precompetitive affective experience and performance for an elite javelin thrower at seven track and field events using a time series model for single subject designs and from a reversal theory perspective.Results and conclusion: Levels of pleasant emotions were found to be consistently higher than levels of unpleasant emotions and it appears that the hedonic tone of precompetitive emotions (i.e., pleasant vs unpleasant emotions) is ineffective in differentiating good and poor achievement. Nevertheless, when considering individual moods instead of emotional groupings, placidity, anger, boredom and provocativeness scores were found to fluctuate significantly between the best and worst performances of the season. This improves knowledge about core values and desired feelings experienced by this athlete before his best and his worst event. As a result, it seems more likely to build effective preperformance behavioral routines.     

The influence of an esports-adapted coping effectiveness training (E-CET) on resilience,mental health,and subjective performance among elite league of Legends players: A pilot study

ObjectiveThis study aimed to develop, and pilot esports-adapted coping effectiveness training (E-CET) and measure its influence on coping effectiveness (global and specific), subjective performance, mental health (psychological distress and wellbeing), and resilience.DesignFive elite male League of Legends players competing in the League of Legends Circuit Oceania participated in a mixed methods research design. The effects of E-CET were measured using a within-subjects quasi-experimental design (i.e., pre-to-post, no control group). To measure the effects of E-CET on specific stressors, a longitudinal diary design was used.MethodPlayers participated in a 2-h session of E-CET and a 45-min follow-up workshop. The 2-h workshop delivered content on two conceptual areas: (1) developing awareness of the stress and coping process; and (2) how to cope with stress. Players completed pre-intervention, post-intervention, and follow-up measures and twice-weekly stress journals.ResultsE-CET led to increases in players' perceived coping effectiveness and subjective performance, but there were no changes in psychological distress, psychological wellbeing, and resilience. However, the results indicate some positive signs for future coping interventions with League of Legends players and iterations of E-CET.ConclusionThe E-CET program appears to provide an opportunity to improve performance and mental health for esports players.     

Longitudinal analysis of stressors,stress, coping and coping effectiveness in elite esports athletes

ObjectiveThe current study aimed to longitudinally examine the stressors, stress appraisal, coping, and coping effectiveness experienced by elite esports athletes.DesignSix elite male League of Legends (LoL) athletes, competing in the Oceanic Challenger Series (OCS), completed diaries over the 2020 competitive season (87 days).MethodAthletes completed weekly diaries after three events: solo training, team training, and competitive matches. Each diary collected data on the stressors experienced, stressor intensity and threat/challenge perception (appraisal), coping strategies used, and perceived coping effectiveness.ResultsGeneral performance, outcome, critical moment performance, and teammate mistakes accounted for 55% of the stressors reported. More stressors were reported in competitive diaries than in training diaries. Competitive stressors were rated as being more intense than training stressors. There were no differences in overall challenge and threat perception, but performance stressors were more likely to be perceived as a challenge, and teammate stressors were more likely to be perceived as a threat. Problem-focused coping (PFC) was the most frequently employed coping strategy. PFC and emotion-focused coping (EFC) strategies were perceived as more effective at reducing stress than avoidance coping (AC).ConclusionsElite LoL athletes experienced a small number of reoccurring stressors over an 87-day competitive period. Athletes reported more stressors around competitive matches and perceived competitive stressors as more intense than team and solo training stressors. Similarly to traditional sports athletes, PFC strategies were the most frequently employed and, PFC and EFC were rated as being more effective than AC.     

Consistency of performance-related emotions in elite athletes: Generalizability theory applied to the IZOF model

ObjectivesTo estimate the between- and within-individual consistency of the individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOF)-based emotion profiles describing successful and unsuccessful (sub-standard) performance situations.MethodThe methodology of generalizability theory (GT) was applied to two multifaceted measurement designs in studies of 12 highly skilled ice-hockey players assessed by the 28-item aggregated sport-specific emotion scale (Study 1) and a single-case involving elite soccer player (Study 2) using self-generated individualized emotion scale, respectively.ResultsA unique and specific interaction of emotions (the IZOF-“iceberg” or bell-shaped profile) characterized successful performance situations in both Study 1 and 2. This pattern with predominance of optimal pleasant and unpleasant emotions was consistently revealed in between- and within-individual comparisons. In contrast, failure (or sub-standard performance) could not be characterized in terms of one unique and specific profile. However, the findings clearly motivate future research to identify multiple emotion profiles to conceptualize sub-standard performance. The paper offers hypotheses to guide future research.ConclusionsFindings provided support for conceptualizing performance situations in terms of relatively stable optimal and dysfunctional patterns of interaction of pleasant and unpleasant emotions. Results also demonstrate that GT is a methodology that can accommodate idiographic as well as nomothetic approaches to estimating within-individual and between-individual consistency patterns of performance-related emotions.     

Talented but Disruptive: An Exploration of Problematic Players in Sports Teams

This study aimed to enhance the understanding of problematic players, who have been identified as highly talented but negative influences in team sport. Using semi-structured interviews, 15 players and coaches’ experiences of problematic players were explored. Results were divided into features, causes of behavior, impacts, and managerial considerations surrounding problematic players. Findings revealed problematic players share characteristics with narcissists. From an applied perspective, the negative impacts from these players are recognized, such as negative role modeling and lower team morale. Managerial considerations for these players are discussed, which could be beneficial for coaches working with problematic players and their negativity.

Lay Summary: We explored coach and player experiences of individuals who are highly talented yet problematic. Such players can now be understood further, in terms of behaviors such as blame shifting, and their impacts such as negative role modeling and creating team divides. Creating stronger coach–player relationships were suggested for effective collaboration.     

Effects of team outcome on children's self-perception: Little League baseball

Abstract.— To determine how children use various attributional categories in making judgments about themselves as a function of team performance outcomes, answers were sought to the questions of how invariant children's perceptions of their characteristics are, and how they expect social agents to judge them under the various outcome conditions of team performance. Subjects were 300 Little League baseball players. Team failure did not decrease the players' judgments of their own internal qualities (ability and effort) but did decrease their judgments of those of the team. In addition, the players judged themselves and expected social agents (coach and spectators) to judge them as being unlucky and having a difficult task following team failure. Theoretical implications of the results were discussed.     

Coping with the loan transition in professional association football

The present study generated a qualitative examination of male professional football players’ experiences of stress during the loan transition using the Demand Resources and Individual Effects (DRIVE) Model. Purposeful sampling was used to recruit participants (M age = 23; SD = 2.5) from various Premier League (n = 2), Championship (n = 8), and League (n = 1) clubs across the UK who have experienced a loan to another club. Guided by a critical realist philosophical orientation, semi-structured interviews were deductively developed based upon the DRIVE model to stimulate contextual discussion about the pre-transition resources (e.g. organizational support), perceived transition demands (e.g. performance pressure) and appraisals. Finally, players were asked to discuss their strategies for coping (e.g. situational coping) with loan demands and if they deemed this coping to be effective. Braun and Clarke’s (2013) thematic content analysis was utilised. Deductive thematic analysis was used to identify and evidence themes that were articulated in relation to the demands experienced, appraisals associated with such demands, and the coping strategies used to manage these demands. An inductive approach was used to code sub-themes from the data, on the basis of players’ specific experiences that had not yet been exemplified in the existing literature. This study presented loan transition demands (performance and organizational), contextual individual differences (situational coping, dispositional coping, and protective factors) and loan resources (transition preconditions and during loan) that may assist individuals’ performance and well-being. Practitioners would be advised to work with players on facilitating pre-transition resources and identify perceived demands they consider important to their transition process. Future research should seek to explore the loan transition within elite female football.     

Perceived inclusion in youth soccer teams: The role of societal status and perceived motivational goal climate

ObjectivesOur aim was to investigate the link between youth soccer players' perceptions of the coach-initiated motivational goal climate within their team and their perceptions of inclusion as a function of societal status. Societal status refers to one's national background which numerically forms the majority or a minority in a particular society.Design and methodsSurvey data was collected among 245 male youth soccer players (M = 12.9 years, SD = 1.60), who all played in culturally diverse teams in the Netherlands. The societal status of 94 players (38.4%) was majority, and 151 players (61.6%) were classified as minority. To test our main hypothesis, perceived inclusion as the dependent variable was hierarchically regressed on coach-initiated mastery goal climate perceptions, performance goal climate perceptions, societal status, and their interactions.ResultsOverall, mastery goal perceptions and performance goal perceptions of intra-team competition were positively and negatively related, respectively, to perceived team inclusion. As hypothesized, only among players with a societal minority status, perceptions of inclusion were higher when mastery goal climate perceptions were higher and performance goal climate perceptions were lower.Discussion and conclusionOur findings suggest that a coach-initiated mastery-oriented team climate may enhance an inclusive soccer environment in culturally and nationally diverse teams. For societal minority players, intra-team competition should be de-emphasized by the coach in order to strengthen the experience of inclusion.     

高处不胜寒? 领导工作场所孤独感的多层次双刃剑效应

在组织中,由于存在权力和地位差异等因素,领导者往往难以获得充分的人际关系满足,孤独成为领导者这一群体的普遍体验。事实上,领导者的工作场所孤独感不仅会对领导者自身产生一系列影响,且还具有独特的社会功能,会给团队及其追随者带来后续影响。然而,目前组织管理领域有关孤独感的文献主要集中于探讨员工的工作场所孤独感,罕有研究考察领导工作场所孤独感究竟会造成何种影响。并且,现有研究普遍只关注孤独感的消极效应,缺乏对其潜在积极效应的挖掘。因此,本文将通过3个子研究,结合多层次、多理论、多研究方法的全景研究范式,全面考察领导工作场所孤独感的双刃剑效应及其机制。本研究不仅可以丰富和拓展工作场所孤独感的理论体系,也能为企业发挥领导工作场所孤独感的积极作用与抑制其负面效应提供管理启示。     

Perceptual-cognitive expertise, practice history profiles and recall performance in soccer

We examined whether high- or low-performing soccer players, classified based on established measures of perceptual-cognitive expertise, differed in regard to their practice history profiles and ability to recall elements of match performance. In Study 1, we measured perceptual-cognitive expertise in elite (n= 48) and non-elite (n= 12) youth soccer players using empirical tests of perceptual-cognitive skill. We then used a quartile split to stratify elite players into either high-performing (n= 12) or low-performing (n= 12) groups based on their test scores. A group of non-elite soccer players (n= 12) acted as controls. In Study 2, we used an established questionnaire to examine retrospectively the participation history profiles of the three groups. The high-performing group had accumulated more hours in soccer-specific play activity over the last 6 years of engagement in the sport compared to their low-performing counterparts and the non-elite controls. No differences were reported for hours accumulated in soccer-specific practice or competition between the high- and low-performing groups. In Study 3, a novel test was developed to examine episodic memory recall in soccer. Although this test successfully differentiated elite from non-elite players, no differences were evident between high- and low-performing groups, implying that episodic memory recall may not be a crucial component of perceptual-cognitive expertise in soccer.     

Performance Excellence: A Personal Perspective on the Link Between Sport and Business

This article provides a personal perspective on the link between excellence in sport and business. It traces the author's transition from sport psychologist to business consultant before identifying specific areas in which direct links can be drawn between the two domains. Specifically, five major areas are addressed: organizational issues, in which a demands, supports, constraints approach is outlined; stress, including a model of stress in leaders and a model of stress and coping; leadership, in which a model of leadership and how it relates to performance is presented; high-performing teams, based on a create, unite, perform (CUP) model of team building, team work, and team effectiveness; and one-to-one coaching/consulting, in which common areas across sport and business are identified. The general conclusion is that the principles of elite performance in sport are easily transferable to the business context, and also that sport has a considerable amount to learn from excellence in business.     

Talent Development in Elite Junior Tennis: Perceptions of Players,Parents, and Coaches

This study examined players,' parents,' and coaches' perceptions of talent development in elite junior tennis. Nine participants (three athletes aged 13–15 yrs, four parents, and two coaches) were engaged in semi-structured interviews, which were transcribed verbatim and subjected to an inductive-deductive analysis procedure. Results revealed six categories associated with adult influence on talent development in tennis (Emotional Support, Tangible Support, Informational Support, Sacrifices, Pressure, and Relationships with Coaches). Overall, the results highlighted that parents appeared to fulfill the most significant roles in terms of providing emotional and tangible support (with the mother being more involved than the father). Parents were perceived as a source of pressure when they became over-involved in competitive settings. The role of the coach was focused on providing technical advice. Findings also showed that parents and players were required to make sacrifices. The main applied implication of this study is that involvement in elite junior tennis is a team effort whereby players, parents, and coaches fulfill specific roles.     

The differential effect of team members' trust on team performance: The mediation role of team cohesion

This study examines team performance as affected by various trusting relationships: trust between team members and the team's trust in their direct manager and in top management. Data for the study were collected from a survey of 690 professional elite athletes (belonging to 59 different sports clubs) playing in the regular, top professional Spanish leagues. The model was tested at the team level. Findings reveal that team member trust with respect to the different foci has both a direct and indirect effect on team performance, and that team player trust and cohesion play a mediating role. This study illustrates the dynamic relationship within teams, and, as such, trust among teammates mediates the relationship between trust in the coach as well as team cohesion in determining team performance. The implications for managing teams in other contexts are also evaluated.     

Stress appraisals influence athletic performance and psychophysiological response during 16.1 km cycling time trials

ObjectivesWe examined how stress appraisals were associated with emotions, coping behaviours, as well as subjective and objective measures of performance.DesignProspective field- and laboratory-based studies.MethodsIn Study 1, 192 athletes completed process-oriented psychometrics pertaining to the aforementioned constructs throughout a sporting competition. Study 2 utilised an experimental design to assess the causal influence of stress appraisals on performance, cortisol, and psychological variables. Thirty gender-matched athletes were randomly assigned to either a stress appraisal (e.g., challenge, threat, benefit, or harm/loss) or the control group. Participants completed three 16.1 km cycling time trials (TT) on a cycle ergometer, with their appropriate stress appraisal engendered via falsified performance feedback throughout the final TT. Salivary cortisol samples and psychometrics (e.g., appraisals, emotions, and coping) were collected before and after each TT.ResultsThe results of Study 1 revealed a sequential link between challenge stress appraisals and perceived goal attainment via pleasant emotions and task-oriented coping behaviours. Threat stress appraisals inversely related to goal attainment via unpleasant emotions and both distraction- and disengagement-oriented coping. In Study 2, no significant psychophysiological or performance differences were found across genders. The temporal orientation of stress appraisals influenced objective cycling TT performance. Benefit and harm/loss stress appraisals significantly facilitated or inhibited performance, respectively. Cortisol spikes were observed in the stress appraisal group’s threat, challenge, and benefit, with a decline detected within the harm/loss group. Whilst the process of winning is physiologically stressful, the fear of defeat may be more stressful than losing itself.ConclusionStress appraisals influence subjective and objective performance, as well as neuroendocrine and psychological responses to stress.     

Athletic Identity and Well-Being among Young Talented Athletes who Live at a Dutch Elite Sport Center

The effects of a systematic cognitive-behavioral intervention program were examined upon the further appraisals (i.e., emotional orientation) of four golfers who interpreted their emotions as debilitative towards upcoming performance and the subsequent effect on actual performance. A systematic, theoretically underpinned, multiple-baseline single-subject design was employed, with four main phases adopted over a 34-week period: Phase I involved baseline monitoring of emotion and performance data; Phase II included the education and acquisition of the cognitive-behavioral technique; Phase III entailed the integration of technique within actual competitive performance; an immediate and 3-month post intervention phase was incorporated for social validation data. An instant intervention effect on emotional orientation was observed with interpretations changing from debilitative to facilitative or unimportant. Improved and more consistent subjective and objective performances were also reported. Social validation during (open-ended questionnaires) and post-intervention (interviews) indicated changes in performers’ focus from their emotions and negative thoughts towards the task in hand. Indeed, the intervention was suggested to promote a change in focus to play the best shot possible and confidence to perform during problem holes.