THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HR PRACTICES AND FIRM PERFORMANCE: EXAMINING CAUSAL ORDER

Significant research attention has been devoted to examining the relationship between HR practices and firm performance, and research support has assumed HR as the causal variable. Using data from 45 business units (with 62 data points), this study examines how measures of HR practices correlate with past, concurrent, and future operational performance measures. The results indicate that correlations with performance measures at all 3 times are both high and invariant, and that controlling for past or concurrent performance virtually eliminates the correlation of HR practices with future performance. Implications are discussed.     

Self-efficacy,motivation, and performance

Abstract

This article discusses the relation of self-efficacy to motivation and performance in cognitive and sport domains. Self-efficacy refers to one's beliefs about accomplishing a task and can influence choice of activities. effort, persistence. and achievement. People enter activities with varying levels of self-efficacy derived from prior experience, personal qualities, and social support. As they work on tasks they acquire information about how well they are doing. This information influences their self-efficacy for continued learning and performance. Research is described in which interventions involving models, goal setting, and feedback, were employed to affect self-efficacy. Regardless of domain, research shows that self-efficacy helps to predict motivation and performance. and studies testing causal models highlight the important role played by self-efficacy. Suggestions for future research are given, along with implications of theory and research for education and training.     

How psychological momentum changes in athletes during a sport competition

ObjectivesThe present research sought to examine changes in psychological momentum (PM) during sport competitions through the lens of a dynamical systems approach.DesignMale regional-level cyclists competed in cycling duels on home trainers.MethodImages of moving avatars of the cyclists were projected on a wall, and were manipulated so that one cyclist was exposed to an ascending performance scenario (i.e., positive momentum) and the other to a descending performance scenario (i.e., negative momentum). Every 3 min, the cyclists answered PM items by using a keyboard that was placed on the handlebars of their bicycles. Additionally, exerted power was continuously recorded.ResultsResults revealed an asymmetrical critical boundary pattern for PM perceptions indicating that negative PM was triggered more easily than positive PM. Exerted power was generally higher during the negative momentum scenario than during the positive momentum scenario. In addition, exerted power slowly decreased over both momentum scenarios, and this decrease was faster at the very beginning of the negative momentum scenario.ConclusionResults indicate that PM perceptions possess the dynamical properties of nonlinearity and history-dependence. Moreover, the finding that exerted power was higher in the negative momentum scenario was interpreted as a resistance behavior that occurs while experiencing negative momentum. The anticipated decreases in both exerted power and PM perceptions in the negative momentum scenario converge to support the notion that negative PM is a stronger attractor than positive PM. The present study confirms that PM is a dynamical phenomenon and offers fruitful avenues for future research.     

Paradigms in psychosomatic research: a dialectic perspective

By tradition, psychosomatic research has relied on a linear causality model where various psychological and social factors have been correlated to organic disorders. It has become increasingly evident, however, that etiological models based on single causal factors are inadequate. Recently, a reorientation has been noted towards system-oriented multicausality models, which assume that social, psychological, and physiological factors interact in the pathogenesis of a disease. In this review, the limitations and potentials of the linear and system-oriented paradigms are discussed. It is suggested that these perspectives are complementary, and may be applied simultaneously in an integrated, dialectic approach.     

Emotional Experiences of Youth Sport Parents I: Anger

Abstract

Recent research in sport psychology has focused on the role of the athlete's knowledge base in defining high-level sport performance. However, few studies have attempted to examine this knowledge directly, largely because of the methodological challenges involved (Allard &; Burnett, 1985). One effective approach to investigating expertise in other domains has been to examine ways in which experts sort and categorize domain-related problems, and the bases on which these categories are formed. Problem-sorting methodologies are difficult to apply in the sport context, however, because sport performance problems are generally ill-defined. The present paper describes a methodological approach designed to identify and quantify problems which define an athlete's working knowledge of a given sport, as well as the criteria athletes use to cognitively organize their knowledge of these problems. This approach combines qualitative methods, such as structured interviewing and card-sorting techniques, with repertory grid and multidimensional scaling statistical procedures. The data of an elite male cyclist were presented to illustrate how these methods might be applied in sport settings.     

Equilibria of the Rescorla-Wagner model

The Rescorla-Wagner model has been a leading theory of animal causal induction for nearly 30 years, and human causal induction for the past 15 years. Recent theories (especially Psychol. Rev. 104 (1997) 367) have provided alternative explanations of how people draw causal conclusions from covariational data. However, theoretical attempts to compare the Rescorla-Wagner model with more recent models have been hampered by the fact that the Rescorla-Wagner model is an algorithmic theory, while the more recent theories are all computational. This paper provides a detailed derivation of the long-run behavior of the Rescorla-Wagner model under a wide range of parameters and experimental setups, so that the model can be compared with computational theories. It also shows that the model agrees with competing theories on a wider range of cases than had previously been thought. The paper concludes by showing how recently suggested modifications of the Rescorla-Wagner model impact the long-run behavior of the model.     

Proposing an ontological shift from intervention to intravention in sport and exercise psychology

Intervention research entails the measurement of change in a situation or individual after a modification has been imposed. In sport and exercise psychology, interventions have been implemented in a variety of situations (e.g., performance, doping, physical activity, mental health) for a variety of individuals (e.g., athletes, coaches, sedentary people). Despite their widespread use, accruing evidence indicates that interventions in sport and exercise psychology have had less than anticipated success in instigating change. While some scholars have pointed to the need to confront the methodological challenges of intervention implementation, others have called for the creation of viable alternative forms of inquiry that can complement intervention research. The purpose of the present article is to propose an ontological shift from intervention to intravention in sport and exercise psychology. This shift is undertaken through the deployment of Barad’s (2007) agential realist ontology. The paper is divided into six sections. First, the concept of interaction is situated as it forms the basis for how interventions are conducted. Second, the Baradian ontology of agential realism is explained, along with key concepts. Third, intravention is positioned in relation to five guiding principles that delineate the progression for conducting intravention inquiries. Fourth, alternate meanings are proposed for behaviour, change, and knowledge. Fifth, examples are provided as to how intravention inquiries can be deployed in sport and exercise psychology. Sixth, concluding thoughts are offered. As an ontological becoming of interventions, intraventions are situated as open-ended approaches to inquiry that can help researchers derive alternate understandings of existence and can take the psychology of sport and exercise in exciting and affirmative directions.     

How do supporters perceive positive and negative psychological momentum changes during a simulated cycling competition?

ObjectiveThe present study examined changes in sport supporters' psychological momentum (PM) during a simulated cycling competition through the lens of the dynamical systems approach.DesignParticipants were asked to support one of two competing cyclists involved in a race that was displayed on a screen in a lecture hall.MethodThe race scenario was manipulated so that the image of the supported cyclist underwent either positive or negative momentum. At regular intervals, participants indicated their PM perceptions during the race.ResultsPM perceptions rapidly changed at the onset of both the positive and negative momentum sequences and then remained stable, reflecting negative hysteresis. Supporters tended to anticipate the future performance of a given athlete on the basis of their current performance. Moreover, this anticipatory tendency was stronger during the positive momentum sequence than during the negative momentum sequence.ConclusionThese results provide initial insights into how PM perceptions of sport supporters change during a competition.     

Dismantling the “age–prospective memory paradox”: The classic laboratory paradigm simulated in a naturalistic setting

Previous research has identified “the age–prospective memory paradox”—that adult ageing results in reliably poorer performance on laboratory-based tasks of prospective memory (PM), but improved performance on such tasks carried out in real-life settings. We hypothesized that even in their everyday environment, older adults might be worse at PM tasks that are triggered during an experimenter-generated ongoing activity. The present study used a task that captured the key features of the classic laboratory paradigm, but which was completed in a setting that met key criteria to be considered naturalistic. In their everyday setting, participants' PM was assessed, with the cue to remember occurring either (a) during their day-to-day activities, or (b) during an experimenter-generated ongoing task. The results confirmed previous naturalistic findings, in showing that older adults (n = 28) exhibited better PM than their younger counterparts (n = 65) when prompted during their everyday activities. However, older adults were also then subsequently less likely to show effective PM during experimenter-generated ongoing activity. Reproducing the paradox within a single dataset, these data indicate that older adults can effectively act on intentions during everyday activities, but have difficulty in prospective remembering during experimenter-generated ongoing tasks.     

Healthy Lifestyle,Well-being,Physical Activity,Sport, and Scholastic/academic Performance: Interactions and Connections

The physical activity and sport are key elements for a healthy lifestyle. However, a little-investigated element is the presence of a possible relationship between school or academic performance and the participation in physical activity and sport in groups of preadolescents and adolescents. In order to clarify the complex relationship between mind and body in preadolescence and adolescence, the present discussion investigates the causal and direct relationship between sport activity and performance; and describes how this relationship can be mediated by the sense of self-esteem and self-efficacy; and investigates the relationship between group sports practice and school or academic performance.     

Identifying expectations about the strength of causal relationships

When we try to identify causal relationships, how strong do we expect that relationship to be? Bayesian models of causal induction rely on assumptions regarding people’s a priori beliefs about causal systems, with recent research focusing on people’s expectations about the strength of causes. These expectations are expressed in terms of prior probability distributions. While proposals about the form of such prior distributions have been made previously, many different distributions are possible, making it difficult to test such proposals exhaustively. In Experiment 1 we used iterated learning—a method in which participants make inferences about data generated based on their own responses in previous trials—to estimate participants’ prior beliefs about the strengths of causes. This method produced estimated prior distributions that were quite different from those previously proposed in the literature. Experiment 2 collected a large set of human judgments on the strength of causal relationships to be used as a benchmark for evaluating different models, using stimuli that cover a wider and more systematic set of contingencies than previous research. Using these judgments, we evaluated the predictions of various Bayesian models. The Bayesian model with priors estimated via iterated learning compared favorably against the others. Experiment 3 estimated participants’ prior beliefs concerning different causal systems, revealing key similarities in their expectations across diverse scenarios.     

Scholarship on Gender and Sport in Sex Roles and Beyond

In this paper we critically review how research on girls or women and sport has developed over the last 35 years. We use a post-positivist lens to explore the content of the papers published in Sex Roles in the area of women, gender and sport and examine the shifts in how gender and sport have been conceptualized in these accounts. In order to initiate a broader dialogue about the scholarly analysis of gender and sport, we subsequently explore ideas inspired by feminist theorizing that have dominated/guided related research in other outlets over this time period but have received relatively little attention in papers published in Sex Roles. We conclude by briefly making suggestions for further research in this area.     

Psychological momentum: intuitive physics and naive beliefs

The present research examines psychological momentum (PM), a perceived force that lay intuition suggests influences performance. PM theory is proposed to account for how momentum perceptions arise, and four studies demonstrate the influence of lay intuitions about PM on expectations regarding performance outcomes. Study 1 establishes that individuals share intuitions about the types of events that precipitate PM, and Study 2 finds that defeating a rival increases momentum perceptions. Study 3 provides evidence for the lay belief that as more PM accumulates during a prior task, there should be more residual momentum left to carry over to a subsequent task, and Study 4 finds that an individual whose PM is interrupted is expected to have greater difficulty completing a task than is an individual whose steady progress is interrupted. Discussion focuses on linkages between PM and related constructs.     

A comparison of authentic and transformational leadership in sport

Transformational and authentic leadership are two models of leadership, which have some similarities and are relevant to sport. However, these leadership models are also distinct and consequently may predict athlete outcomes differently. Authentic leadership has received little attention in sport and so research is needed to examine how it is unique in terms of what it adds to dominant sport leadership models. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether authentic leadership (a) is empirically distinct from transformational leadership and (b) adds to transformational leadership by explaining unique variance in commitment and enjoyment. A total of 421 (227 female, M_age = 20.32) team sport athletes took part in the study by completing a questionnaire. Authentic leadership was correlated to transformational leadership, suggesting transformational and authentic leadership show some convergent validity. However, Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) revealed that authentic leadership also shows discriminant validity to transformational leadership and has incremental predictive power above that of transformational leadership, in terms of predicting athletes’ enjoyment and commitment. Our findings enhance our understanding of authentic leadership in sport and clearly show that it is distinct from transformational leadership. They also highlight the importance of authentic leadership and how it adds to transformational leadership in terms of predicting athletes’ commitment and enjoyment.     

Organizational psychology in elite sport: Its emergence,application and future

ObjectivesThe rapid development of elite sport in Europe and across the world has had far-reaching psychosocial ramifications for those operating within its sphere of influence. Whilst sport psychologists in the latter part of the 20th century largely focused on the cognitive determinates of elite performance, the findings of recent research suggest that sport psychologists in the 21st century will need to better understand the organizational influences on world-class athletes. The purpose of this paper is, therefore, to discuss the emergence, application and future of organizational psychology knowledge in elite performance sport.MethodNarrative review and commentary.Results and conclusionThe review discusses the findings of six lines of inquiry that point to the salience of organizational issues in elite sport: i) factors affecting Olympic performance; ii) organizational stress in athletes, coaches and parents; iii) perceptions of roles within sports teams; iv) organizational success factors in sport and business; v) performance environments in elite sport; and vi) organizational citizenship behavior in sport. The commentary then focuses on the theoretical underpinnings and practical implementation of organizational service delivery in elite sport, and concludes by reflecting on how developments in this area have the potential to inform future practice and research relating to the psychology of elite sport.     

Applied sport psychology: A view from britain

Abstract

Based on the findings of a field study with youth sport coaches, contextual factors in youth sport arc considered. Youth sport is discussed as a “developmental intervention” (Birkel, Lerner, &; Smyer, 1989). Although past research has examined a variety of issues in youth sport (e.g., coaching behavior, participation motivation), the dynamics of the context have been largely ignored. It is argued that situational factors may have important implications for the quality of children's youth sport experiences. Data arc presented to show the significance of contextual factors in coaches' experiences. Examples of previous interventions aimed at manipulating contexts arc offered and suggestions for future interventions, based on the present study, arc discussed. The roles of parents. spectator location. rules, and time are discussed in detail.     

Heuristic and linear models of judgment: matching rules and environments

Much research has highlighted incoherent implications of judgmental heuristics, yet other findings have demonstrated high correspondence between predictions and outcomes. At the same time, judgment has been well modeled in the form of as if linear models. Accepting the probabilistic nature of the environment, the authors use statistical tools to model how the performance of heuristic rules varies as a function of environmental characteristics. They further characterize the human use of linear models by exploring effects of different levels of cognitive ability. They illustrate with both theoretical analyses and simulations. Results are linked to the empirical literature by a meta-analysis of lens model studies. Using the same tasks, the authors estimate the performance of both heuristics and humans where the latter are assumed to use linear models. Their results emphasize that judgmental accuracy depends on matching characteristics of rules and environments and highlight the trade-off between using linear models and heuristics. Whereas the former can be cognitively demanding, the latter are simple to implement. However, heuristics require knowledge to indicate when they should be used.     

Computation and Causation

The computer's effect on our understanding of causation has been enormous. By the mid-1980s, philosophical and social-scientific work on the topic had left us with (1) no reasonable reductive account of causation and (2) a class of statistical causal models tied to linear regression. At this time, computer scientists were attacking the problem of equipping robots with models of the external that included probabilistic portrayals of uncertainty. To solve the problem of efficiently storing such knowledge, they introduced Bayes Networks and directed graphs. By attaching a causal interpretation to Bayes Networks, the philosophy of causation changed dramatically. We are now able to be extremely general about how causal structure connects to data, and systematic about when causal structures are empirically indistinguishable. In this essay I try to motivate and describe this synthesis.     

Self-talk: Review and sport-specific model

Self-talk is a key component of the sport psychology canon. Although self-talk has been widely endorsed by athletes and coaches as a performance enhancement strategy, a comprehensive model of self-talk in sport that might be used to guide systematic research has yet to be developed. This purpose of this paper is to: (a) review theory and research related to self-talk in sport; and (b) present a sport-specific model that builds upon existing theory and research, and addresses key questions related to self-talk. The paper begins with a definition of self-talk, developed with consideration of the discursive nature of inner speech and dual process theories. Extant self-talk models related to self-talk in sport are reviewed and serve as a foundation for a sport-specific model of self-talk. Components of the model (i.e., self-talk, System 1, System 2, behaviour, contextual factors, personal factors) are presented, the reciprocal relationships among model components are explored, and implications of the sport-specific model of self-talk are discussed.