四卡问题解决中的视角效应

视角效应是指在四卡问题解决中,当被试从不同的角度来对条件规则进行检验时,其选择偏向会在卡片P,-Q和-P,Q之间发生稳定变化的现象。到目前为止,义务和非义务推理中都发现了该效应的存在,不同的推理理论都试图对此作出解释,却一直存在分歧,其焦点在于视角效应的形成机制是领域特殊性的还是领域一般性的。该文评述了不同的演绎推理理论对视角效应发生机制作出的解释,并且最后总结了该领域目前研究存在的主要争论。     

Sufficiency and Necessity Assumptions in Causal Structure Induction

Research on human causal induction has shown that people have general prior assumptions about causal strength and about how causes interact with the background. We propose that these prior assumptions about the parameters of causal systems do not only manifest themselves in estimations of causal strength or the selection of causes but also when deciding between alternative causal structures. In three experiments, we requested subjects to choose which of two observable variables was the cause and which the effect. We found strong evidence that learners have interindividually variable but intraindividually stable priors about causal parameters that express a preference for causal determinism (sufficiency or necessity; Experiment 1). These priors predict which structure subjects preferentially select. The priors can be manipulated experimentally (Experiment 2) and appear to be domain‐general (Experiment 3). Heuristic strategies of structure induction are suggested that can be viewed as simplified implementations of the priors.     

Necessity, Sufficiency, and Perspective Effects in Causal Conditional Reasoning

A growing body of research indicates that in causal conditional reasoning, the conclusion that P is necessary for Q is suppressed where alternative conditions for Q are available. Similarly, the conclusion that P is sufficient for Q is suppressed where disabling conditions for P or additional requirements for Q are available. This paper describes experiments in which these factors were used to produce 'perspective effects' in causal contexts that appear identical to the perspective effects found in previous research with deontic tasks. It is therefore proposed that deontic perspective effects are themselves also attributable to the influence of pragmatic factors upon perceived necessity and sufficiency. A generalized theory based on a modification of the mental model theory of deontic reasoning is presented, which accounts for perspective effects across the two domains.     

条件推理和选择任务的关系：选择任务中的条件推理逻辑

要求大学生被试在相同的情境和规则下先后完成选择任务和条件推理任务,从而系统考察两项条件命题任务之间的关系。结果表明,当规则的语义表征意义为条件命题和反条件命题时,两项任务的反应模式具有一致性;当为双向条件和非条件命题时,两项任务的反应模式出现了分歧,而且四种推理形式和四张卡片之间不存在直接的对应关系。两项条件命题任务之间的关系表现在,它们可能享有共同的语义关系表征空间,但推理过程和策略有所不同。     

四卡问题解决中的匹配偏向再探

选取经典的四卡问题作为实验材料,深入探讨了“综合考虑证真证伪作用”的提示以及逻辑分析过程对被试解决四卡问题不能产生促进效应的原因。结果发现:(1)多数被试能对卡片P和-Q进行正确的逻辑推断,但是最后却仍然倾向于选择卡片Q而非-Q,这种错误并非是由于附加的认知任务使得被试的短时记忆容量超载所致。(2)元音偶数组与元音非偶数组的被试对四张卡片作出正确逻辑推断的人数百分比基本一致,但是后者选择P-Q的人数百分比却显著高于前者,这表明多数被试似乎并不依据逻辑分析的结果及其命题检验的规则来作出选择,而是采用匹配策略,错误地选择了Q卡片。     

Universal Connectives in the Selection Task

Two experiments using Wason's selection task are reported in this paper. Their main purpose was to test the meaning of universal connectives ( always and never ) against the hypothetical conditional connective ( if ). In the first experiment, these two different kinds of connectives were used with the same content and in logically equivalent situations. Results demonstrated that universal connectives yield different patterns of responses than do hypothetical connectives. People seem to consider the situation described in the task in the same way, irrespective of the use of negations, when universal connectives are used, but not when the if... then structure is used. The second experiment extended these results to a different content, and to an abstract version of the task. An explanation in terms of mental models is provided.     

抽象材料选择任务的表象表征视角

为了探讨在选择任务中表象表征存在的可能性以及抽象材料选择任务困难的原因,该研究设定了材料的内容、规则以及证明规则的要求均完全相同,只是在呈现方式上形象性不同的两种抽象选择任务;然后把两种不同的选择任务分别对数量大致相当的大学生进行了测试。结果发现,不采用类似卡片这种形象性很强的材料呈现方式显著的提高了人们在抽象选择任务中的正确率。实验结果支持了选择任务中表象表征的存在及其为选择任务困难原因之一的观点。     

四卡问题解决中的内容与逻辑分析效应

选取条件概率(P(Q|P))由低到高的四个命题作为四卡问题中的检验规则,探讨了大学生被试对四张卡片的逻辑证明作用的推断能力及其对解决四卡问题的影响。结果发现:(1)不同条件概率的命题之间正确选择P-Q的人数百分比不存在显著差异,命题的条件概率因素对四卡问题的正确解决没有影响。(2)逻辑分析过程对四卡问题的正确解决产生了一定的抑制作用,这可能是因为被试不能从整体上思考四张卡片在命题检验中的逻辑作用的缘故。(3)一些被试即使在逻辑分析过程中表现出知道-Q卡片的证伪作用,仍然倾向于选择卡片Q而非-Q,这一现象再次证实了人类思维的非形式逻辑的一面。     

Sharing-rule and detection of free-riders in cooperative groups: Evolutionarily important deontic reasoning in the Wason Selection task

Taking a Darwinian approach, we propose that people reason to detect free-riders on the Wason Selection task with the sharing-rule; If one receives the resource, one is an in-group member (standard), or If one is an in-group member, one receives the resource (switched). As predicted, taking the resource-provider's perspective, both undergraduates and children (11 to 12 years old) checked for the existence of out-group members taking undeserved resource. Changing the perspective to that of the resource-recipient did not alter the selection pattern in undergraduates, although the prediction was that another type of free-riding—failure to share by resource-provider—would be checked as well. However, by removing confounding factors in the materials, both undergraduates and children checked for both types of free-riding, which fully supports the prediction. These results indicate that the sharing-rule elicits a thematic content effect that cannot be explained by preceding deontic reasoning theories.     

The effect of instructions on performance in the Wason selection task

The effect of instructions on performance on the standard abstract form of Wason’s selection task was examined. Instructions to determine whether or not the statement is violated did not lead to an increase in correct responding, contrary to previous suggestions that such instructions would induce falsification strategies, but rather to an increase in verification bias. Instructions to determine whether the statement is true or false led to increased variability in performance, supporting the suggestion that such instructions are inherently ambiguous. Thus, the results demonstrate that the form of instructions can have a significant effect on performance in the selection task. Verification bias did better as an explanation of the data than did matching bias, which only fared well when its predictions coincided with those of verification bias. A substantial proportion of the data was unaccounted for by either of these strategies, which is consistent with the findings of a number of other recent studies.     

任务数量与工作记忆容量对交错学习的影响

研究以分子结构式为材料,让被试在单任务或双任务条件下以集中呈现和交错呈现的方式进行学习,并通过操作广度、旋转广度和对称广度任务测量工作记忆容量（working memory capacity, WMC）,探究在基于规则类别学习中交错呈现优势的稳定性。结果显示,交错呈现优势仅体现在文科生中;而对于理科生,集中呈现效果较佳。另外,任务数量和WMC均不影响交错呈现优势,表明交错呈现优势稳定存在于单任务和双任务条件中,且不同WMC的个体均能从交错学习获益。     

Perspective effects in nondeontic versions of the Wason selection task

Perspective effects in the Wason four-card selection task occur when people choose mutually exclusive sets of cards depending on the perspective they adopt when making their choice. Previous demonstrations of perspective effects have been limited to deontic contexts--that is, problem contexts that involve social duty, like permissions and obligations. In three experiments, we demonstrate perspective effects in nondeontic contexts, including a context much like the original one employed by Wason (1966, 1968). We suggest that perspective effects arise whenever the task uses a rule that can be interpreted biconditionally and different perspectives elicit different counterexamples that match the predicted choice sets. This view is consistent with domain-general theories but not with domain-specific theories of deontic reasoning--for example, pragmatic reasoning schemas and social contract theory--that cannot explain perspective effects in nondeontic contexts.     

Externalization, Counter-examples, and the Abstract Selection Task

The five experiments reported in this paper examined the effect of two theoretically motivated, explicit mental procedures on performance in different versions of the four-card, abstract selection task. There was no overall benefit as a result of carrying out these procedures; instead, performance depended upon the extent to which subjects carried out the procedures successfully. Most crucially, the experiments demonstrated that correct selection depends not simply upon envisaging the right counter-example, but upon identifying those cards that could contain potential counter-examples. Such findings are broadly consistent with the theory of mental models. However, contrary to the theory, identification is not sufficient for correct selection. The externalization technique used in these studies provides a way to examine the loci of performance differences in the selection task and therefore provides a way to test rival theoretical claims.     

成就动机和任务框架对职业生涯决策风险偏好的影响

利用信息板技术研究了成就动机对职业生涯决策过程中风险偏好的影响.结果表明:1)成就动机的各维度对职业决策风险偏好有不同的作用,避免失败动机比追求成功动机对职业风险偏好的预测更加敏感.2)淘汰框架比录用框架表现出更强的风险偏好,但差异均未达到显著性水平.3)成就动机和任务框架的交互作用对职业决策风险偏好有显著影响.     

The Effects of Task Characteristics on Covariation Assessment: The Impact of Accountability and Judgment Frame

The impact of personal accountability and judgment frame on strategies for assessing covariation between two binary variables was examined in two experiments. Using a task designed to discriminate between the use of four different strategies varying in degree of sophistication it was found that subjects accountable to an audience with unknown views displayed use of more complex strategies than subjects who were not accountable. In addition, contrary to a recent attribution model (Cheng & Novick, 1992), subjects were less likely to use the conditional probability rule when the judgment question was framed in terms of causality rather than covariation, and covariation judgments did not always parallel causality judgments.     

The suppression of q card selections: Evidence for deductive inference in Wason's Selection Task

The results of three experiments investigating the role of deductive inference in Wason's selection task are reported. In Experiment 1, participants received either a standard one-rule problem or a task containing a second rule, which specified an alternative antecedent. Both groups of participants were asked to select those cards that they considered were necessary to test whether the rule common to both problems was true or false. The results showed a significant suppression of q card selections in the two-rule condition. In addition there was weak evidence for both decreased p selection and increased not-q selection. In Experiment 2 we again manipulated number of rules and found suppression of q card selections only. Finally, in Experiment 3 we compared one- and two-rule conditions with a two-rule condition where the second rule specified two alternative antecedents in the form of a disjunction. The q card selections were suppressed in both of the two-rule conditions but there was no effect of whether the second rule contained one or two alternative antecedents. We argue that our results support the claimthat people make inferences about the unseen side of the cards when engaging with the indicative selection task.     

Unreinforced Conditional Selection by Two-Year-Olds in A Six-Comparison Matching Task

The Psychological Record - Four normally developing 2-year-old children were exposed to a story in which six novel characters appeared and were named. To assess learning of the character name...     

问题结构因素对伦敦塔问题解决的影响

以121名2,4,6年级小学生为被试,采用计算机呈现的方式,探讨了子目标和次佳路径这两个问题结构因素对伦敦塔问题解决表现的影响。结果发现：子目标和次佳路径两个因素存在交互作用,解决有子目标－无次佳路径问题时的计划指标要高于其他类型问题。根据被试在伦敦塔任务上的表现,划分为三大类7种表现类型。当存在不同的问题结构因素时,问题解决表现类型体现出差异性。     

Discussion Task Demands and Revising Probabilities in the Selection Task: A Comment on Green,Over, and Pyne

Green, Over, and Pyne's (1997) paper (hereafter referred to as “GOP”) seems to provide a novel approach to examining probabilistic effects in Wason's selection task. However, in this comment, it is argued that their chosen experimental paradigm confounds most of their results. The task demands of the externalisation procedure (Green, 1995) enforce a correlation between card selections and the probability of finding a counterexample, which was the main finding of GOP's experiments. Consequently GOP cannot argue that their data support Kirby's (1994) proposal that people's normal strategy in the selection task is to seek falsifying evidence. Despite this methodological problem, effects of the probability of the antecedent (p) of a conditional rule, if p then q, predicted by Kirby (1994) and by Oaksford and Chater (1994) were observed, although they were inconsistent between Experiments 1 and 2. Moreover, the probability estimates that GOP collected, which are not vulnerable to that methodological criticism, do support the idea that when P (p)> P (q), participants revise P (p) down as suggested by Oaksford and Chater (1994).