Expectancy Accessibility, Alcohol Expectancies, and Intentions to Consume Alcohol

Drug use tends to correlate more strongly with positive expectancies than with negative expectancies. The expectancy-accessibility model provides one explanation for this disparity. This model suggests that the association between positive expectancies of a drug's effects and intentions to use the drug are larger because positive expectancies are often more accessible in memory. Previous work supports the model for positive expectancies and intentions to use smokeless tobacco. Positive expectancies correlated significantly with intentions to use smokeless tobacco only when they were primed in memory. The current study attempted to extend these findings to alcohol consumption. Positive expectancies correlated significantly with intentions to drink when they were primed in memory, as the model predicts. Nevertheless, positive expectancies also correlated significantly with intentions when negative expectancies were primed. In addition, negative expectancies were not associated with intentions to drink, regardless of priming condition. These latter results are not consistent with the model. These findings suggest that the expectancy-accessibility model may be limited.     

Personal and social correlates of alcohol consumption among mid‐adolescents

A prospective, cohort survey of 540 mid‐adolescent students was conducted to identify personal, family and social correlates of alcohol use. A structured questionnaire recorded alcohol involvement, other substance use, perceived parental alcohol use and related factors, alcohol‐related attitudes and beliefs, psychological well‐being, social and peer behaviours, and school conduct problems. Participants drank on 17.5 days in the past 3 months; on a typical drinking day they consumed 4.7 units, with 28.5% reported drinking six or more units. More frequent drinking was independently correlated with being male, perceiving that parents encouraged drinking, drinking without parental knowledge, drinking to alter mood, buying alcoholic beverages, spending more time with friends who drink, perceiving social pressure to drink, and being excluded from school and truanting. Parental discouragement for alcohol was related to more frequent drinking in females and less frequent drinking in males. Drinking more intensively was associated with use of cannabis, parental encouragement to drink, spending more time with friends who drink, school exclusion, and being in trouble with teachers. These results highlight multidimensional correlates of drinking during mid‐adolescence and underline the importance of addressing personal, family, peer, and school conduct factors in school‐based alcohol education programmes.     

Emotionally Based Expectancies and Willingness To Use Aversive Therapy

Intellectually based expectancies are beliefs about the world that are subjectively perceived as true. Emotionally based expectancies are beliefs that have an "as if" quality to them. The two types of expectancies derive from different sources and are influenced by different variables. This study examined the relationship between these two types of expectancies and willingness to use aversive therapy. Forty-seven undergraduate subjects were first given a brief lecture on childhood autism and the treatment of self-injurious behavior by aversive therapy. Afterwards, they indicated on a brief questionnaire their intellectually and emotionally based expectancies about how effective aversive therapy would be. Finally, they indicated their willingness to use aversive therapy themselves with autistic children. The partial correlation of emotionally based expectancies with stated intentions was .48, that of intellectually based expectancies with stated intentions was .10. As predicted, the emotionally based expectancy correlation was significantly higher.     

Influence of Positive and Negative Film Portrayals of Drinking on Older Adolescents' Alcohol Outcome Expectancies

College students (76 females. 32 males) were shown videotaped clips from popular films depicting either (a) desirable outcomes of drinking distilled spirits, (b) undesirable outcomes of drinking distilled spirits, or (c) no portrayals of distilled spirits. After presenting the film clips, we assessed their alcohol outcome expectancies and intentions to drink alcoholic beverages in the next week Participants in the positive film condition endorsed more positive expectancies than did participants in the control condition, and participants in the positive and negative film conditions endorsed more negative expectancies than did the participants in the control condition. Intentions to drink distilled spirits in the next week did not differ by film condition.     

Associations Between Peer Drink Driving,Peer Attitudes Toward Drink Driving,and Personal Drink Driving1,2

A cross-sectional survey of a population-representative sample of 785 Australian drinkers was used to identify associations between aspects of individuals' peer environments and the likelihood of them reporting drink driving. Multivariate analyses showed that drink drivers perceived that a larger proportion of their drinking friends are drink drivers and were less likely to perceive that their friends disapprove of drink driving. A covariance analysis suggested that the belief that friends would disapprove may play a mediating role in the relationship between personal drink driving and that of peers. These findings suggest that peer group normative processes are associated with drink driving.     

Alcohol Use in Adolescent Twins and Affiliation with Substance Using Peers

Affiliation with substance using peers is one of the strongest predictors of adolescent alcohol use. This association is typically interpreted causally: peers who drink incite their friends to drink. This association may be complicated by uncontrolled genetic and environmental confounds because teens with familial predispositions for adolescent substance use may be more likely to select into social networks where drinking is common. We test this alternative hypothesis using a sample of 1,820 twin and sibling pairs, and their same-sex best friends, from three waves of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Across all three waves, peer report of substance use did not influence adolescent alcohol use when genetic and shared environmental predispositions for drinking were considered. The association between alcohol use and peer behavior may be a spurious association attributable to a shared genetic liability to drink alcohol and associate with peers who drink alcohol.     

The beliefs adults and children hold about television and video games.

In Phase 1 of this study, we asked 23 parents between the ages of 30 and 52 years and 26 children between the ages of 10 and 19 years to list effects of television and video games on children. A questionnaire was developed using the most frequently given responses (e.g., television influences children's aggressive behavior, verbal abilities, or time with friends). In Phase 2, this questionnaire was administered to different groups of parents and children and a control group of adults without offspring (N = 204) who were asked to rate the influence of each item on the questionnaire. Multivariate analyses of variance indicated that there were similarities and differences among the groups. For example, parents and other adults held similar beliefs about the influence of television, but parents held more positive beliefs about the influence of video games than the other adults. Children held more positive beliefs about the influence of television than parents, but parents and children held similar beliefs about the influence of video games.     

An application of protection motivation theory to riskier single-occasion drinking

Abstract

Cognitions in relation to drinking alcohol on a single occasion were explored within the framework of Protection Motivation Theory (PMT). One hundred and twenty three students provided information about their current weekend drinking, beliefs about drinking, and intentions to drink at safer limits. Data on self reported weekend drinking were gathered two weeks later from the same respondents. Analyses showed PMT components to be predictive of intentions but not of later behaviour. Perceived severity and self-efficacy related significantly to intentions for drinking at safer limits. No PMT measure differentiated between those who engaged in riskier single-occasion drinking at follow up and those whose drinking was less risky. Past behaviour was the only significant predictor of riskier single-occasion drinking at follow up. Implications for the current utility of PMT are discussed particularly in relation to respondents' reactions to newly identified health threats.     

Say the right thing: Apologies,reputability, and punishment

This research investigates how and when apologies work. Findings from three studies suggest that apologies influence punishment decisions, but not by reducing concerns about recidivism or perceptions of bad intentions. The extent to which future expectancies or perceived intent mediates the effects of apologies on punishment depends on the offender's reputability. However, the perceived appropriateness of the response fully mediates the effect of apologies on punishment, regardless of the offender's reputability. Overall, the findings suggest that saying the right thing helps those who do the wrong thing, but not by influencing others' beliefs about their past intentions or future behaviors.     

Encouraging the practice of testicular self-examination: a field application of the theory of reasoned action

Identified factors associated with testicular self-examination (TSE) within the context of the theory of reasoned action. Subjects (232 male college students) received instruction in TSE and completed a questionnaire operationalizing the components of the theoretical model. During the following 6 weeks, a field intervention was conducted in which approximately half the subjects were exposed to posters reminding them to perform the exam. Multiple-regression analyses revealed that intention to perform TSE correlated significantly with attitude and subjective norm and that consideration of self-efficacy and TSE knowledge improved the prediction of intention. Significant differences in outcome expectancies and normative beliefs were found between subjects who intended to perform the exam and those who did not. Intention was moderately (r = .30, p less than .001) correlated with behavior; the intention-behavior correlation, however, was stronger among subjects who intended to perform the exam and were exposed to the posters (r = .55, p less than .001).     

Effects of Implementation Intentions Linking Suppression of Alcohol Consumption to Socializing Goals on Alcohol‐Related Decisions

This article investigates the effects of implementation intentions that connect the suppression of alcohol consumption to socializing goals on the decision to accept an offer of a free alcoholic drink. Participants were university students (N = 48) who were randomly assigned to an implementation intention condition or a control condition. The results show that participants who formed implementation intentions were less likely to accept the offer of a free alcoholic drink than were participants who did not form implementation intentions. In addition, the results demonstrate that the implementation intention effect held among habitual alcohol drinkers. The results of the present study suggest that implementation exercises can successfully suppress habitual alcohol consumption.     

College Students’ Attitudes Toward Blacks and Arabs Following a Terrorist Attack as a Function of Varying Levels of Media Exposure1

Attitudes toward Blacks and Arabs immediately following a terrorist attack on the United States, as well as 1 year later, were investigated. White undergraduate students completed a modified version of the Should‐Would Discrepancy Questionnaire (Monteith & Voils, 1998), assessing beliefs about what they should do in certain situations pertaining to race and what they would do in these situations. Additionally, daily self‐reported levels of news exposure were measured. The result was that the participants both believed that they should and would be more prejudiced toward Arabs than toward Blacks, at both Time 1 and Time 2. Furthermore, at Time 1, there was a trend for participants reporting high levels of daily news exposure (television, radio, Internet, and newspapers) to be more prejudiced toward Arabs than were participants who reported low levels. No effect of news exposure on attitudes toward Blacks was found at Time 1. At Time 2, however, participants reporting greater amounts of news exposure were more prejudiced toward Blacks than were participants reporting medium or low levels. Possible reasons for and implications of these findings are discussed.     

Sources of exposure to smoking and drinking friends among adolescents: a behavioral-genetic evaluation

Substance-using friends expose adolescents to models of, and opportunities for, substance use that may lead to its initiation or reinforce existing use. Using genetically informative data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (P. S. Bearman, J. Jones, & J. R. Udry, 1998), the authors examined whether adolescents' exposure to friends' tobacco smoking and alcohol drinking was better explained by family-social or genetic influences. To conduct analyses, the authors constructed substance use exposure scores for adolescent siblings from the responses of siblings' nominated friends to self-reported smoking and drinking items. Using behavioral-genetic analyses of these substance use exposure scores, the authors estimated that 64% of the variance in adolescents' exposure to friends who smoke and drink could be explained by genetic influences, whereas shared environmental influences were zero. These results provide evidence of active, evocative, or both types of gene-environment correlations. Genetic factors can influence the formation of friendships with substance-using peers, thereby contributing to adolescents' exposure to substance use behaviors.     

Impact of Social and Structural Influence Interventions on Condom Use and Sexually Transmitted Infections Among Establishment-Based Female Bar Workers in the Philippines

This quasi-experimental study evaluated the influence of structural intervention components (e.g., changing organizational and social influence factors) in reducing biological sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and reports of unprotected sex among female bar workers (FBWs) in the Philippines (N = 369 at baseline). Recruited from four large southern Philippines cities, FBWs were exposed to a standard care, a manager influence, a peer influence, or a combined manager/peer influence condition. After the two-year intervention period, FBWs in the combined peer and manager intervention condition showed greater reductions in STIs and unprotected sex relative to those in the standard care condition. FBWs in the combined and the manager only conditions also showed a decrease in STIs compared to those in the standard care condition. Managers in the standard care condition reported lower positive condom attitudes and lower attendance at HIV/AIDS related training sessions compared to those in the combined condition. The combined effect of managers and peers had a positive, synergistic effect on condom use behavior and STI reduction compared to the standard care. This research provides empirical evidence that structural changes such as rules, regulations, and increased accessibility of condoms must be in combination with normative changes (individuals' attitudes, beliefs and normative expectancies) in order to achieve the greatest benefit in condom use behavior and STI reduction/prevention.     

The effect of pictorial content on attention levels and alcohol‐related beliefs: An eye‐tracking study

To examine attention levels to different types of alcohol warning labels. Twenty‐two participants viewed neutral or graphic warning messages while dwell times for text and image components of messages were assessed. Pre and postexposure outcome expectancies were assessed in order to compute change scores. Dwell times were significantly higher for the image, as opposed to the text, components of warnings, irrespective of image type. Participants whose expectancies increased after exposure to the warnings spent longer looking at the image than did those whose positive expectancies remained static or decreased. Images in alcohol warnings appear beneficial for drawing attention, although findings may suggest that this is also associated with heightened positive alcohol‐related beliefs. Implications for health intervention are discussed and future research in this area is recommended.     

The Indirect Effects of Social Network Characteristics and Normative Beliefs in the Association between Adolescent Depressive Symptomatology and Binge Drinking

Adolescents who experience depression have different attributional styles and may overestimate how much alcohol their friends consume. This misperception may increase binge drinking among adolescents with depressive symptomatology. The social networks of adolescents with depressive symptomatology are systematically different, providing different social learning opportunities. Using Add Health, we find that individuals who suffer from depressive symptomatology are more likely to have peers with higher depression scores. Adolescents with higher depressive symptomatology are more likely to perceive their peers as drinking alcohol. Our results suggest that normative beliefs are the key mediator in explaining the association between depressive symptomatology and binge drinking.     

When the party for some becomes a problem for others: the effect of perceived secondhand consequences of drinking behavior on drinking norms

The authors examined the influence of fraternity men's expectancies regarding secondhand consequences of excessive drinking behavior on normative standards regarding alcohol use and consumption levels. Participants were 381 men from 26 chapters of 2 national fraternities. One organization participated in a brief intervention involving discussion of secondhand consequences of excessive drinking. Immediate influence of the intervention on perceived secondhand consequences of alcohol use was assessed using a posttest-only, randomized groups design. Results supported a hypothesized measurement model with 1 overall secondhand consequence expectancy construct and 4 subfactors: (a) Noise Disruptive of Sleep and Study, (b) Violence, (c) Sexual Assault, and (d) Property Damage. Cross-sectional analysis at the chapter and individual levels demonstrated that secondhand expectancies had an indirect effect on alcohol consumption, mediated by personal consumption standards for limiting alcohol consumption. The intervention had an effect on secondhand expectancies. Findings suggest that interventions with intact groups can increase secondhand expectancies regarding excessive drinking and may lead to a reduction in excessive alcohol consumption.     

Condom use among high-risk adolescents: testing the influence of alcohol use on the relationship of cognitive correlates of behavior.

The goal of this study was the exploration of distal effects of alcohol use on condom use. Criminally involved adolescents completed an initial measure of attitudes, beliefs, and prior behavior. Of the 300 who completed the initial measurement, 267 (89%) completed a behavioral assessment 6 months later. Analyses validated a theoretical model of condom use intentions and indicated that intentions and attitudes measured at baseline were significant predictors of condom use behavior 6 months later. Neither alcohol use nor alcohol problems moderated relationships among model variables or the influence of intentions and attitudes on behavior. The findings do not support a distal role for alcohol use in altering the cognitive correlates of condom use intentions and behavior among high-risk adolescents.     

Predicting Intentions to Use a Condom From Perceptions of Normative Pressure and Confidence in Those Perceptions1

Two experiments were performed to test the hypothesis that confidence in the correctness of one's perceptions of normative pressure to use a condom influences the correspondence between those perceptions and intentions to actually perform the behavior. In Study 1, confidence in perceptions of normative influence was manipulated in an experimental paradigm using hypothetical scenarios. In Study 2, confidence in subjects' a]ctual perceptions was measured. Results from both experiments indicate that the correspondence between perceptions of normative influence and intentions was greatest when subjects were confident that their perceptions of normative influence were correct.