Attribution of blame for criminal acts and its relationship with personality

This paper examines the relationship between some personality variables and attribution of blame by offenders for their criminal activity. A specially-designed ‘Blame Attribution Inventory’ was constructed and administered to 224 Ss who had committed ‘serious’ criminal acts. Factor analysis of the items revealed 3 independent factors: (1) ‘External’ Attribution (i.e. blaming the crime on social circumstances, victims, society); (2) ‘Mental-Element’ Attribution (i.e. blaming responsibility for the crime on mental illness, poor self-control, distorted perception); (3) ‘Guilt-Feeling’ Attribution (i.e. feelings of remorse, regrets, need for punishment). The inventory was administered to 40 offender patients who had completed the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), the Gough Socialization Scale (GSS) and the Beck Depression Inventory. External Attribution had significant correlation with the EPQ P scale, Mental-Element Attribution correlated significantly with the EPQ L scale and the GSS. Guilt-Feeling Attribution was associated with depression and neuroticism.     

The Frequency Accrual Speed Test (FAST): psychometric intelligence and personality correlates

Performance on a putative psychophysical measure of information processing related to intelligence (Vickers' 1995 Frequency Accrual Speed Test, FAST) was assessed in relation to two psychometric measures of intelligence (Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices and the Mill Hill vocabulary test). Participants (N = 57) completed the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire — Revised (EPQ‐R), and performed the FAST task under either low (70 dB) or high (90 dB) levels of white noise. FAST correlated with Raven's (r = 0.56) and Mill Hill (r = 0.28), as expected. FAST total scores were not affected by personality or personality‐by‐noise interactions. However, a measure of consistency of FAST performance (i.e. the standard deviation) was correlated negatively with total FAST scores (r = ?0.37) and positively with (EPQ‐R) extraversion (r = 0.34). The results are discussed in terms of the validity of the FAST to explicate the information processing variables in psychometric intelligence. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Lateralized hemisphere activity in relation to personality and degree course

Personality dimensions of Psychoticism (P), Extraversion (E) and Neuroticism (N) were related to multiple measures of lateralized hemispheric processing in order to test the predictions of right hemisphere overactivation in E, right hemisphere underactivation in N, and left hemisphere under- activation/overactivation in P. It was also predicted that architecture students would be characterized by right hemisphere activation and language students by left hemisphere activation. Lateral eye movements, verbal and nonverbal dichotic listening tasks, and Block Design and Digit Span subtests of the WAIS were assessed in 43 undergraduates, together with personality and degree course. High P scores were characterized by fewer rightward eye movements and hence reduced left hemisphere activation, while high N scores were characterized by poorer Block Design and superior Digit Span performance. These results which indicate a relationship between Psychoticism and left hemisphere underactivation are in conflict with the finding of Raine and Manders (1988) (Br. J. Clin. Pschol. In press) overactivation in those with high schizoid personality scores, a discrepancy which may be resolved by the notion that P reflects a different form of psychosis-proneness to other schizoid scales.     

Sex differences in brain activity, personality and intelligence: a test of arousability theory

This report describes empirical tests of the theory that females have higher levels of behavioural and cerebral arousal than males and that these differences cause higher neuroticism scores in females, as well as lower female psychoticism scores and lower scores for females on the Gsar factor of intelligence. Data were obtained from 76 subjects, with equal numbers of males and females and with all adult ages represented. EEG responses to auditory stimulation were quantified in terms of the ‘amplitude, ‘rate of change of amplitude and ‘sweep variability factors obtained from a principal components analysis (PCA). Gf, Gc and Gsar intelligence scores were obtained from a PCA of sub-tests from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale plus Ravens Advanced Progressive Matrices test. Personality differences were evaluated using the Neuroticism and Psychoticism scales of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ). Bivariate hypotheses relating sex to the arousal, intelligence and personality variables were confirmed. A PCA demonstrated that sex, neuroticism, Gsar, wakefulness and high frequency EEG activity all have high loadings on a common factor. These results are consistent with expectations generated by the cerebral arousability theory of personality and intelligence.     

Premenstrual tension and personality

The premenstrual symptomalogy (PMT) of 165 students of nursing and midwifery was studied and their personality was assessed using the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ). Thirty-four per cent of the Ss showed severe and 42% moderate PMT symptomatology. Ss with severe PMT symptomatology gave significantly higher scores in the neuroticism scale of the EPQ. Abdominal and pelvic pain as well as low back pain, i.e. symptoms of dysmenorrhoea, did not correlate with high neuroticism scores.     

Properties of the diffuse thalamocortical system and human personality: A direct test of Pavlovian/Eysenckian theory

Advances in the last few decades demonstrate the relevance of Pavlov's classification of behavioural types with respect to human individual differences and suggest that the hypothetical excitatory and inhibitory processes which he associated with these differences correspond to cortical and thalamic neuron populations of the diffuse thalamocortical system (DTS). Since the transmission properties or time constants of these DTS elements would correspond to the Pavlovian property of ‘strength’, and since they can be evaluated in human subjects (Robinson, 1981), it is possible to formulate hypotheses based on the fundamental principles of strength and balance which Pavlov employed to provide a causal explanation for temperamental types. A major finding is that covariation of the time constants equated with strength correlates 0.95 with covariation of extraversion and stability scores on the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ). This result provides unequivocal support for the relationship between human individual differences and properties of the nervous system postulated by Pavlov and it also confirms the neurophysiological underpinning of Eysenck's influential theory of human personality. In addition, the relationship between Pavlovian and Eysenckian concepts is clarified and EEG parameters are meaningfully related to personality differences.     

National differences in personality: India and England

This study reports comparisons between results on the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) obtained from 558 male and 636 female Indian Ss; the comparison group of the original standardized English Sample (Eysenck and Eysenck, 1975). Factor analysis of item correlations showed close correspondence between the factors extracted in the two samples, with indices of factor comparisons being well in excess of 0.97. The reliabilities in the Indian sample were only marginally lower than in the original English standardization group. Some items from the original EPQ did not load on the hypothesized factors; they were substituted by the extra items contained in the 101-item version of the EPQ used in India. The Indian data showed no sex differences with respect to extraversion; females were found to score higher on the Neuroticism and also slightly higher on the Lie scale than the males. The Lie scores for both males and females being quite high suggests a consistent trait of conformity in operation. It was concluded that the organization of personality in India is sufficiently similar to that in England to make national comparisons feasible since identical dimensions underlie the personalities of Indian and English Ss.     

Fluid and crystallized intelligence: effects of diffuse brain damage on the WAIS

In the 1940's two forms of intelligence, fluid and crystallized, were postulated. Active mental processing (WAIS performance subtests) were fluid while well learned abilities (WAIS verbal subtests) were crystallized. Brain damage was considered to affect fluid abilities more than crystallized. WAIS scores comparing normal and diffusely organically damaged subjects indicated that, as hypothesized, the verbal subtests were more affected than the performance subtests.     

Impulsivity in adults: motor inhibition and time-interval estimation

There is a need for the development of behavioral measures of impusivity in order to elucidate the specific qualities of impulsive persons. The relationships between two behavioral measures of impulsivity and several personality inventories frequently used to assess inpulsivity were examined using 40 male Ss. The behavioral measures involved a motor-inhibition (MI) task and time-interval (TI) estimation. The personality measures included the Extraversion (E), Psychoticism (P) and Neuroticism (N) scales of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), Barrat's Impulsivity Scale (BIS) and Gough's Socialization Scale (So). Significant relationships between MI scores and E, BIS and a proposed dimension of impulsivity obtained by the formation of E-P quadrants were found. In addition, performance on this task was related to So, P and E-N quadrants in the predicted directions. The consistency of these results supports the use of this task as a behavioral measure of impusivity in adults. Although personality inventory scores were not related to estimations, significant (negative) correlations were obtained between TI estimations and MI scores. The results indicate that TI estimation by itself is not an adequate measure of impulsivity, but does have implications for understanding impulsive behavior.     

The relationships between morningness-eveningness, ageing and personality

In an attempt to study the relationship between ageing and personality and the morningness-eveningness dimension two experiments were carried out. In experiment I, an Italian version of the Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire (MEQ) was administered to 435 Ss ranging in age from 20 to 79 yr, and divided in to six age groups. In comparison with younger people older S tended to display greater Morningness-Eveningness scores. These results suggest that ageing relates to a shifting toward morningness. In Experiment II the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) and the MEQ were administered to 233 Ss (20–29 yr). Morning-types had significantly higher N scores and tended to be insignificantly more introverted. Evening-types had significantly higher N scores and tended to be insignificantly more extraverted. The present findings are consistent with reports of a tendency for morning-types to be introverted and for evening-types extraverted. However, they do provide some evidence of individual differences on the neuroticism and psychoticism dimensions of personality between the two diurnal types.     

Properties of the diffuse thalamocortical system, human intelligence and differentiated vs integrated modes of learning

In complementary reports Robinson (1982a, b) describes how the transmission characteristics or time constants of thalamic and cortical neuron populations of the diffuse thalamocortical system (DTS) can be evaluated in human subjects. Equating these constants with the Pavlovian property of ‘strength’ it was predicted that they should relate to Extraversion and Neuroticism scores on the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ). This prediction was confirmed and the results provide direct support for the theories of Pavlov and Eysenck. The present report describes additional results which confirm predictions relating the DTS constants to performance on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and on the Embedded Figures Test (EFT). An important finding was that a measure of deviation from intermediate and ‘balanced’ values of the DTS constants loads to the extent of -0.80 on the WAIS ‘memory’ or ‘attention/ concentration’ factor. More generally, the results provide further support for Pavlov's conception of brain-behaviour relationships and suggest that the DTS plays a fundamental role in determining a broad spectrum of human psychological differences including some associated with the concepts of intelligence and cognitive style. These IQ and cognitive style differences are explained as the immediate and longer-term consequences, respectively, of differences in the distribution of background cortical activity mediated by the DTS.     

A comparison of the Guilford and Eysenck factors of personality

The correlations of factor scores from the Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey (GZTS) with factor scores on the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) were compared to predictions made by Guilford and Eysenck regarding the structure of personality. Factor structure of the GZTS was consistent with Guilford's proposed model. Eysenck's Neuroticism was strongly associated with Guilford's Emotional Stability (E) and E plus Objectivity (O) factors. Eysenck's Psychoticism had no counterpart on the GZTS, although it was associated with Restraint (R). EPI-Extraversion was related to both Guilford's Social Activity (SA) and Introversion-Extraversion (IE) second-order factors, while EPQ-Extraversion was related only to SA. Findings are discussed in terms of Eysenck's evolving definition of Extraversion and the emerging importance of the Impulsivity primary factor.     

Correlations of measures of personality and of intelligence within and across generations

Members of over 100 families were administered the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) as well as various psychometric tests of personality. Individual cognitive and personality measures often were associated. Parent personality scale scores often were associated with offspring WAIS scores and vice versa. Stepwise multiple regressions demonstrated that knowledge of parental personality test scores substantially increased the predictability of offspring WAIS scores.     

The relationship between Eysenck's major personality dimensions and simultaneous and sequential processing in children

The present study reexamined Eysenck's hypothesis that intelligence and personality are uncorrelated. Intelligence was measured with the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, yielding scores for simultaneous and sequential processing and achievement, and the Woodcock-Johnson Brief Scale. Personality was assessed with the Junior Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. Ss were 105 children, ages 8$\text{1}\text{2}$10$\text{1}\text{2}$yr. Although a process as well as a product-oriented intelligence test was employed, the correlational and discriminant analyses supported Eysenck's original hypothesis.     

On the relationship between personality and time estimation

The influence of basic dimensions of personality, such as extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism, on estimation of time still appears to be unclear. Therefore, in the present study the relationship between Eysenck's basic dimensions of personality and time estimation was investigated in 34 male Ss. After filling in the short version of a German adaptation of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-Revised, Ss were required to reproduce target durations ranging from 5 to 40 sec. As a measure of performance, reproduction ratio scores, representing directional errors, and absolute error scores were computed. Correlational analyses revealed no indication of a linear relationship between neuroticism and time estimation. However, there was a tendency for extraverts to overestimate time and to make less accurate time judgments relative to introverts. Furthermore, Ss with higher psychoticism scores were less prone to overestimation of time intervals and showed better accuracy of temporal reproductions than Ss with lower psychoticism scores.     

II. The comparability of the WISC-R and WAIS among 16-year-old EMR children

Thirty 16-year-old EMR children were administered the WAIS and WISC-R in counterbalance order to determine the comparability of the two assessment instruments. The WAIS was found to yield significantly higher Verbal, Performance, and Full Scale IQ scores. The comparisons of corresponding subtests indicate that all WAIS subtests were significantly higher than the WISC-R except Picture Completion. Correlations between corresponding WAIS and WISC-R IQ scales and subtests, however, were significant. The results suggest differences between the two instruments among children of subnormal intelligence, thus presenting the possibility that a child may be differentially classified based on the selection of the intelligence test.     

Predicting and accepting personality test scores

Three studies are reported concerned with people's perception of their own personality, their acceptance of bogus ‘personality’ feedback, and the relationship between their ‘actual’ personality scores and their willingness to accept bogus feedback. In the first study subjects attempted to predict their own and a well-known other person's personality scores. They were fairly good at predicting some of their own scores (extraversion, neuroticism) but less so others, suggesting that people can recognize their own ‘correct’ personality feedback. In the second study subjects were given either positive (Barnum Statements) or negative (reverse Barnum Statements) ‘bogus’ feedback after a personality test. They tended to accept the positive feedback as more accurate than the negative feedback though this was not related to their actual scores. In the third study subjects were given four types of feedback statements after a personality test: general positive, general negative, specific positive and specific negative. As predicted, people tend to accept general rather than specific, and positive rather than negative feedback as true. Furthermore, acceptance was closely related to neuroticism and extraversion in a predicted direction. These results are discussed in terms of the uses and abuses of validation of personality feedback.     

An empirical test of the astrological theory of personality

The present study investigated the accuracy of genethliacal horoscopes by asking each of the 15 Ss and a member of her family or a close friend—the nominee—to try to identify which one of 5 cast horoscopes pertained to the S, i.e. was based on her birth data. In addition, each S was rated on 5 personality dimensions by the astrologer who cast the horoscopes, the S herself and her nominee. Finally, the S completed the South African Personality Questionnaire which measured the dimensions psychometrically. Neither the Ss nor the nominees were able correctly to identify the S's horoscope. Regarding the 5 personality dimensions, it was found that the astrologer's ratings did not correlate with the psychometrically-obtained scores, the S's self-ratings or the ratings of the S by the nominee. There was, however, a reasonably high degree of consensus between the psychometrically-obtained scores, the self-ratings and the ratings of the nominees.     

Age differences,cerebral arousability,and human intelligence

This report describes an empirical test of the cerebral arousability theory of intelligence which predicts that EEG-intelligence correlations will vary systematically as a function of age-related changes in cerebral arousal. Data were obtained from 76 subjects, in six different age-groups, with equal numbers of males and females in each group. AEP measures evaluated the amplitude, frequency and variability of EEG responses evoked by auditory stimulation. In accordance with arousability theory, but in contrast to an earlier report by D.E. Hendrickson (1982), the results show that there is no simple linear relationship between any of the EEG measures and general intelligence. There is a predicted increase in cerebral arousal during early adulthood with the highest arousal found for the 41–50 age-group and thereafter a steady decline with increasing age. Positive and negative Pearson product-moment correlations were found for variation of cerebral arousal with respect to WAIS ‘verbal’ and ‘spatial’ scores, respectively. These correlations conform exactly to the pattern predicted from arousability theory. Also, as expected from theory, the correlations for the youngest and oldest age-groups were generally greater in magnitude and more likely to be statistically significant with values ranging up to r = 0.78.     

Competing tasks as an index of intelligence

Most studies involving competing (or dual) tasks have been concerned with the investigation of models of attention and have stressed the importance of task characteristics in determining competing-task performance. The relatively few studies which have looked at individual differences in competing-task performance suggest that measures of this performance could reflect operations which are central to cognitive functioning. This paper examines two key questions which stem from this research: is there a separate ability involved in competing-task performance? Is competing-task performance more indicative of general intellectual functioning?A battery composed of both single and competing tasks was presented to 91 Ss. Two sets of scores, ‘primary’ and ‘secondary’, were obtained from the competing tasks. The results indicate that ‘single’ and ‘primary’ scores are basically measuring the same thing but that ‘secondary’ scores measure what is perhaps a time-sharing factor. There is also some evidence that primary and secondary scores are more indicative of the general factor, as measured by this battery, than their single counterparts.