Differential K theory and race differences in E and N

Differential K Theory was recently proposed relating personality to reproductive strategy (Rushton, 1985). The more K the person is (the symbol derives from population biology), the more he or she will delay reproductive effort, produce fewer children and more intensely care for them. Concomitant characteristics include intelligence, altruism, law-abidingness and behavioural restraint. Race differences are hypothesized such that, in terms of K, Mongoloids > Caucasoids > Negroids. Barratt and Eysenck (1984) recently published standardized Extraversion (E), Neuroticism (N), Psychoticism (P) and Social Desirability (L) scores for males and females from 25 different countries, but did not analyse the data in such a way that racial differences were found. In the current study Barratt and Eysenck's data are aggregated across sex and over countries to examine whether theoretical predictions regarding race differences in behavioural restraint do in fact occur. Behavioural restraint was indexed by low E and high N scores. The means for 8 Mongoloid samples (N = 4044) were contrasted with those of 38 Caucasoid (N = 19, 807) and 4 Negroid ones (N = 1906), and the resultant comparisons confirmed expectations. Mongoloids are lower on E and higher on N than Caucasoids, who in turn are lower in E and higher on N than Negroids.     

Mahatma Gandhi’s Pragmatic Spirituality: Its Relevance to Psychology East and West

M. K. Gandhi is no academic psychologist; but his philosophy and practice of pragmatic spirituality have important implications for psychology in general and Indian psychology in particular. Psychology as taught and practised in India is mostly Western and not Indian psychology. Indian psychology is an emerging system of psychology with its roots in classical Indian thought. According to Gandhi, the person is instinctively brute, but inherently spiritual. Consequently, he/she has on the one hand natural attraction to sensory gratification and indulgence, selfish desires and craving. On the other hand, he or she aspires for self-realization. Human development is a dialectical process where people seek to find a workable synthesis between sensory indulgence and spiritual aspirations, between egotistic selfishness and altruistic urges. Gandhi’s life provides an excellent case study of the ways of spiritual development. The techniques he crafted like satyagraha and the strategies he followed in his public life give us insights into how spirituality can be applied to improve human condition. The applications are not India specific, but universal. Therefore, psychologists from the East as well as from the West can join in exploring Gandhian ideas and techniques of psycho-spiritual development and their relevance to today’s troubled world.     

Intersexual aggression and male sexual activity in captive rhesus macaques

Rape has been posited to be an outgrowth of male reproductive strategies. Forced copulations may have evolved as a consequence of the low parental investment made by males in producing and raising offspring. We designed a laboratory experiment which paired rhesus macaque males with females in order to assess the influence of intersexual aggression on male sexual activity. Younger and older adult males had comparable levels of sexual behavior, but younger males were more aggressive towards females than were older males. In addition, females threatened younger males more than older males. Male attacks on females did not result in sexual intercourse. On the contrary, a negative correlation existed between male aggression towards females and male success at achieving intromissions. Female aggression towards males appeared to be an effective tactic which reduced the chances of sexual intercourse. We conclude that intersexual aggression acts either as a mechanism of dominance assertion or as a means to increase spatial distance between individuals. These data do not support the idea that rape in humans has an evolutionary foundation derived from male reproductive strategies.     

Reproductive autonomy rights and genetic disenhancement: sidestepping the argument from backhanded benefit

John Robertson has famously argued that the right to reproductive autonomy is exceedingly broad in scope. That is, as long as a particular reproductive preference such as having a deaf child is "determinative" of the decision to reproduce then such preferences fall under the protective rubric of reproductive autonomy rights. Importantly, the deafness in question does not constitute a harm to the child thereby wrought since unless the child could be born deaf he or she would otherwise never have existed--his or her prospective parents would simply have chosen to abort. As such, for this child, being born deaf counts as a benefit, albeit of the "backhanded" variety, since the only other practical alternative is nonexistence. In what follows, I want to investigate this argument in detail. The target of my investigation will be the possible future use of gene therapy technology to "disenhance" one's offspring. I intend to show that the apparently unlimited right to reproductive autonomy, that is, the right to choose both the quantity and qualities of future offspring, entailed by the argument from backhanded benefit can in fact be "sidestepped" through considering what sorts of reproductive practices we as a society ought to allow.     

Criminal behavior and r/K selection: An extension of gene-based evolutionary theory

An r-selected approach to reproduction emphasizes producing large numbers of offspring with minimal care given to each offspring by its parents. At the other end of the continuum, K-selection is an approach in which few offspring are produced, but maximal care is taken to insure reproductive viability of each offspring. This article argues that several heretofore seemingly unrelated factors which have been found associated with serious victimful criminal behavior (i.e. serious violent and property offenses) in numerous countries are predictable by hypothesizing that criminal behavior is part of an r-selected approach to reproduction.     

Mutual mother–offspring vocal recognition in an ungulate hider species (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Capra hircus</Emphasis>)

Parent–offspring recognition can be essential for offspring survival and important to avoid misdirected parental care when progeny mingle in large social groups. In ungulates, offspring antipredator strategies (hiding vs. following) result in differences in mother–offspring interactions, and thus different selection pressures acting on the recognition process during the first weeks of life. Hider offspring are isolated and relatively stationary and silent to avoid detection by predators, whereas follower offspring are mobile and rapidly mix in large social groups. For these reasons, hiders have been suggested to show low offspring call individuality leading to unidirectional recognition of mothers by offspring and followers high offspring call individuality and mutual recognition. We hypothesised that similar differences would exist in hider species between the hiding phase (i.e. unidirectional recognition) and the phase when offspring join social groups (i.e. mutual recognition). We tested these predictions with goats (Capra hircus), a hider species characterised by strong mother–offspring attachment. We compared the individuality of kid and mother calls, and the vocal recognition ability, during the early phase of life when kids are usually hidden and later when kids have typically joined social groups. Contrary to our predictions, we found that both kids and mothers had individualised contact calls and that mutual recognition existed even during the hiding phase. The large differences in the duration of the hiding phase and in the rate of mother–offspring interactions (possibly partially driven by domestication in some species) probably cause variations among hider species in the mother–offspring recognition process.     

Conditioned water affects pair formation behaviour in the marine polychaete Neanthes (Nereis) acuminata

Assessing cues from conspecifics is paramount during mate choice decisions. Neanthes acuminata is a marine polychaete with a unique life cycle: pair formation, female death following reproduction, male parental care and male ability to mate again after egg care. Males completing such egg care are ‘experienced’. Females have been shown to prefer experienced males over all others, including aggressively dominant males. As the female dies following reproduction, the reproductive success of her offspring depends upon successful parental care by the male. It is therefore vital that the female makes a good mate choice decision. This paper shows that the use of conditioned water from males caring for eggs and newly experienced males caused the female to alter her choice to a previously undesired male. However, conditioned water from males, which had reproduced but were isolated for 2 weeks, did not have the same effect on pairing behaviour. This indicates that the smell of experience is short lived.     

Parent–child relationships and offspring’s positive mental wellbeing from adolescence to early older age

We examined parent-child relationship quality and positive mental well-being using Medical Research Council National Survey of Health and Development data. Well-being was measured at ages 13–15 (teacher-rated happiness), 36 (life satisfaction), 43 (satisfaction with home and family life) and 60–64 years (Diener Satisfaction With Life scale and Warwick Edinburgh Mental Well-being scale). The Parental Bonding Instrument captured perceived care and control from the father and mother to age 16, recalled by study members at age 43. Greater well-being was seen for offspring with higher combined parental care and lower combined parental psychological control (p < 0.05 at all ages). Controlling for maternal care and paternal and maternal behavioural and psychological control, childhood social class, parental separation, mother’s neuroticism and study member’s personality, higher well-being was consistently related to paternal care. This suggests that both mother–child and father–child relationships may have short and long-term consequences for positive mental well-being.     

Adolescent intelligence and socio-economic wealth independently predict adult marital and reproductive behavior

Counter-intuitively, sociobiological and evolutionary theories predict a negative relationship between g and reproduction when applied to modern humans. Although existing research has documented this dysgenic trend, the association between g and socio-economic factors presents a confound that has not systematically been addressed in prior research. Based on a sample of 325,252 individuals drawn from the nationally representative Project Talent database, we examined the unique effects of g and socio-economic wealth, assessed in adolescence, on marital and reproductive behavior over the next 11 years. Results show that both g and socio-economic wealth have unique, independent negative effects on marital and reproductive behavior such that individuals of higher intelligence and higher wealth delay marriage and reproductive longer than those of lower intelligence and wealth. The effect of g was slightly stronger than that of wealth, though for both variables much of their influence was mediated by educational attainment. Consistent with sociobiological theory, these dysgenic effects were stronger among females than males.     

Exploring intergenerational patterns of infidelity

Three studies explored how parental infidelity is related to offspring's infidelity behavior and used social learning theory to test potential mechanisms. In Study 1, parental infidelity was positively associated with offspring infidelity; trust and relationship self‐efficacy did not mediate the association. In Study 2, infidelity was associated with parental infidelity and more positive infidelity beliefs. In Study 3, parental infidelity was positively associated with offspring infidelity. Study 3 revealed that parental infidelity is associated with offspring reports of receiving negative messages about fidelity and positive messages about infidelity from their family of origin. These communications are linked to more positive and accepting infidelity beliefs. The results of these studies support the conclusion that parent infidelity is associated with an individual's own infidelity.     

The relationship between parental physical availability and child sexual,physical and emotional abuse: a study among a sample of university students in South Africa

The relationship between perceived parental physical availability and child sexual, physical and emotional abuse was investigated. The sample comprised 722 undergraduate students of psychology at the University of the North, South Africa. Participants filled in a retrospective self-rated questionnaire in a classroom setting. The questionnaire asked about perceived parental physical availability during childhood, and childhood sexual, physical and emotional abuse. Logistic regression analysis showed that, among all the participants, the factors "the participant not living with the natural (biological) mother until he or she was at least 16 years old" and "have ever had a stepfather or adoptive father until he or she was at least 16 years old" predicted child sexual abuse; and "have ever had a stepfather or adoptive father until he or she was at least 16 years old" predicted child emotional abuse. None of the other aspects of parental availability considered predicted child physical abuse. Mental health and social workers, educators and law enforcement agencies dealing with prevention and protection against child abuse should take note of the above identified predictors while designing programs for the eradication of child sexual, physical and emotional abuse.     

Depleted parental psychological resources as mediators of the association of income with adherence and metabolic control

For adolescents with Type 1 diabetes, lower family income may be associated with poorer diabetes management through depleted parental psychological resources (i.e., higher parental depressive symptoms, lower parental acceptance). Adolescents (N = 252; 46% male) aged 10-14 years with Type 1 diabetes assessed the acceptance of their mother and father (e.g., "gives me the feeling that she likes me as I am"; "she doesn't feel she has to make me over into someone else"). Mothers provided information on family income and demographics. Both mothers and fathers reported their depressive symptoms. HbA1c scores were indexed via medical records. Lower family income was associated with higher (i.e., worse) HbA1c, more mother and father depressive symptoms, and less acceptance from both parents. Mediation analyses revealed that the relationship of lower family income with metabolic control occurred indirectly through lower maternal and paternal acceptance and lower adherence. Lower family income may impair the quality of parent--adolescent relationships that are beneficial for good diabetes management.     

Effects of Parental Soothing Behavior on Stress Levels of 2–8 Year Old Children During Voiding Cystourethrograms by Phase of Procedure

Using the example of a voiding cystourethrogram (VCUG), a painful radiological procedure, this study investigated whether parental soothing behavior (reassuring comments like “it’s almost over” or “You’re O.K.” and soothing by “sh, sh”) in one phase of the procedure influenced the child’s distress in the following phase. The sample was comprised of 68 2–8 year-old children and the accompanying parent(s). Child and parental behavior during the VCUG was coded using a standardized rating scale (CAMPIS-R). Parental reassurance during the anticipatory phase significantly increased the child’s distress of the following phase, while parental “sh, sh” significantly reduced it. Both parental behaviors showed no significant effect on the child’s distress of the following phase when applied during the procedure itself. Results underline the importance of differentiating between anticipatory and procedural phases of the VCUG. Counselling methods for parents on more appropriate strategies to assist their children during procedural phases of the VCUG are necessary.     

Parental attachment and conflict behavior: Implications for offspring's attachment,loneliness, and relationship satisfaction

This study assessed the implications of parental attachment security and parental conflict behavior for offspring's relational adjustment (attachment security, loneliness, and relationship satisfaction). Further, reports of parental conflict behavior were obtained from both parents and offspring, addressing questions regarding agreement between reporters and the origin and extent of discrepant perceptions. Results revealed consistent patterns of conflict behavior and moderate agreement between reporters. However, offspring reported parental conflict behavior more negatively than parents, especially when offspring or parents were anxious about relationships. Parental attachment security had direct associations with offspring's relationship anxiety, whereas associations between parental attachment and offspring's loneliness and discomfort with closeness were mediated by parental conflict behavior. Parental conflict behavior was also associated with offspring's relationship satisfaction. The results are discussed in terms of the mechanisms involved in the intergenerational transmission of relationship difficulties.     

生命早期环境不可预测性对过度进食的影响:基于生命史理论

在生命史理论的视角下, 本研究通过两个研究揭示了生命早期环境不可预测性对过度进食的影响及其作用机制。研究1招募处于生命早期阶段的91名初中生(年龄12~14岁), 采用饱食进食(Eating in the absence of hunger, EAH)范式, 结果发现生命早期环境不可预测性能够显著正向预测个体饱食状态下的高热量食物选择(即过度进食); 研究2招募新冠病毒疾病(COVID-19)暴发背景下301名武汉市居民(高死亡威胁组)和179名其他省市居民(控制组) (年龄18~60岁)为被试, 通过问卷法回溯性地测量生命早期环境不可预测性并探究其影响当前过度进食的机制, 结果发现生命早期环境不可预测性通过生命史策略的中介作用间接影响过度进食。同时, 死亡威胁(新冠病毒疫情)扩大了环境不可预测性通过生命史策略间接影响过度进食的效应, 而社会支持则能缓冲这一效应。研究结果为COVID-19背景下和灾后居民的健康进食干预提供了依据。     

A vicious or auspicious cycle: The reciprocal relation between harsh parental discipline and children’s self-regulation

Children’s ability to exercise self-regulation is a key predictor of academic, behavioural, and life outcomes, but the developmental dynamics of children’s self-regulation are not adequately understood. We investigated how children’s self-regulation skills and harsh parental discipline reciprocally predict each other across 12,474 children at ages three, five, and seven in the U.K. (Millennium Cohort Study). Cross-lagged structural equation models indicated that high initial levels of harsh parental discipline predicted lower subsequent self-regulation, which then reciprocally predicted higher levels of harsh parental discipline. Conversely, high initial levels of child self-regulation predicted lower subsequent harsh parental discipline. Implications for policy and interventions are discussed.     

Attitudes toward marriage: Embeddedness and outcomes in personal relationships

This study examines marriage attitudes, attitude embeddedness, personal relationship outcomes, and parental marital status and conflict using 400 undergraduate students. In a conceptual replication of Prislin and Ouellette (1996) , more embedded marriage attitudes are more predictive of evaluations of general marriage issues and relationship scenarios than less embedded attitudes. Consistent with findings that marriage attitudes influence relationship quality ( Amato & Rogers, 1999 ), more embedded attitudes predict relationship conflict, commitment, desirability of alternatives, and expectations of relationship success. Recollections of high parental conflict are associated with greater relationship conflict, and individuals with divorced parents report more negative marriage attitudes. Future research on relationship attitudes, their strength, and consequences of parental divorce and conflict for offspring marriage attitudes is discussed.     

Socio-economic differences in size-judgments of discs and coins by Chinese primary VI children in Hong Kong.

The present experimental data provide some cross-cultural support for Bruner and Goodman's (1947) hypothesis about perceptual accentuation. 20 Hong Kong Chinese children from a lower socio-economic level over-estimated valued coins more than 15 children from a high socio-economic level. The two Primary Class VI samples used were matched for education and age, and both spoke the Cantonese dialect. There was also some evidence for Tajfel's (1957) "interserial" and "intraserial effects" more particularly for the lower socio-economic children, although similar trends were apparent for the smaller group of higher socio-economic children.     

Willingness to help as determined by the sex-role appropriateness of the help-seeker's career goals

College students were asked if they would be willing to serve as student contacts for high school students applying for admission to the university who wanted more information about student life. Students volunteered to spend more time helping a female applicant if she wanted to become a librarian than if she wanted to become an engineer, while they volunteered to spend more time helping a male applicant if he wanted to become an engineer than if he wanted to become a librarian. Results were the same when the dependent measure was the amount of time volunteered for interviews, for telephone conversations, and for letterwriting, indicating that the amount of personal contact required did not influence subjects' preference to help those whose career aspirations were sex-role appropriate more than those whose career goals were sex-role inappropriate.     

Activity, Passivity, Self-Denigration, and Self-Promotion: Toward an Interactionist Model of Interpersonal Dependency

ABSTRACT Although dependency in adults is inextricably linked with passivity and submissiveness in the minds of many theoreticians, clinicians, and researchers, evidence has accumulated which suggests that in certain situations, dependency is actually associated with high levels of activity and assertiveness. Three experiments were conducted to test the hypothesis that when a dependent person is concerned primarily with getting along with a peer, he or she will “self-denigrate” (i.e., will utilize strategies that ensure that a peer will be evaluated more positively than he or she is on a laboratory task), but when a dependent person is concerned primarily with pleasing an authority figure, he or she will “self-promote” (i.e., will adopt strategies that increase the likelihood that he or she will be evaluated more positively than a peer on a laboratory task). This hypothesis was supported in all three experiments. Theoretical implications of these findings are discussed, and an interactionist model of interpersonal dependency is briefly described.