Effects of Sex,Culture, and Support Type on Perceptions of Spousal Social Support: An Assessment of the “Support Gap” Hypothesis in Early Marriage

Several writers have suggested that a “support gap” characterizes modern marriages, with women receiving less support from their spouses than men receive from theirs. Although this support gap hypothesis (SGH) is used increasingly to explain marital interaction and satisfaction, there have been few rigorous evaluations of this hypothesis. In particular, existing research on the support gap has not systematically considered (a) different types of social support; (b) differences in provided vs. received support; (c) differences in reported levels of support desire, experience, and satisfaction; or (d) differences in distinct cultural groups with respect to social support in marriage. The present study provided a multidimensional assessment of desired and experienced spousal social support. Participants were recently married men and women (100 Americans and 102 Chinese) who completed questionnaires providing assessments of desired and experienced levels of spousal support for each of 5 support types. Men and women did not differ systematically with respect to the levels of support they experienced from their spouses; however, women reported desiring significantly higher levels of support from their spouses than did men for all 5 types of support. Evaluation of support satisfaction indicated that both American and Chinese women experience gaps with respect to emotional and esteem support; Chinese women additionally experience a gap in network support. These results specify the nature of marital support gaps much more precisely than previous work and suggest several issues to be addressed in future work.     

The Moderating Role of Gender and Gender Role Attitudes on the Link Between Spousal Support and Marital Quality

Researchers who examine the relation of gender role attitudes to division of household labor and marital quality often overlook its relation to emotional spousal support. Moreover, research on gender and marriage often ignores how gender role attitudes may explain the link between spousal support and marital quality. Secondary data analyses on a nationally representative sample of U.S. adults examined the interaction of gender and gender role attitudes on spousal support and marital quality. Emotional spousal support predicted better marital satisfaction and less conflict for traditional women and egalitarian men, whereas both instrumental and emotional spousal support predicted better marital satisfaction for egalitarian women and traditional men. These results suggest that within, as well as between, gender differences are important for understanding the contribution of spousal support to perceived marital quality.     

An examination of sex differences in social support among older men and women

This paper is designed to empirically investigate sex differences in social support. Several types of sex differences are examined, including quantity and quality of support, the relationship between quantitative and qualitative measures of support, the number and source of support provided and received, and the relative predictive power of quality and quantity of support on well-being. The data are taken from the Supports of the Elderly, a national survey of older people (Kahn and Antonucci, 1984). Included in the present study are 214 men and 166 women ranging in age from 50 to 95 who are married and have at least one child. The analyses reveal that women have larger networks and receive supports from multiple sources, while men tend to rely on their spouses exclusively. Men report greater satisfaction with marriage than women. Quantitative supports are more related to qualitative supports for women than for men. For both sexes, the quality of support rather than the quantity of support has significantly greater effects on well-being; both the quantity and quality of social support have a greater impact on the well-being of women compared to men.     

Social Support in Couples: An Examination of Gender Differences Using Self-report and Observational Methods

We explored gender differences in actual and perceived spousal support in a survey study involving 458 married Belgian couples and in an observational study involving 32 married Belgian couples. Self-reports were used in both studies to assess spouses’ support behaviors and perceived support. These measures were supplemented in Study 2 with measures of observed support behavior and on-line perceived support, as assessed during support interactions. Overall, the self-report measures yielded significant gender differences in support soliciting and support provision, whereas the observational measures did not. Furthermore, the results concerning global and on-line perceived support and support profiles were inconsistent with the “support gap” perspective. These findings were discussed in light of the existing research on gender differences in support and marriage.     

A Dyadic View of Support in Marriage: The Critical Role of Men’s Support Provision

This study examined how sensitive support provision and receipt were related to marital outcomes in a sample of 57 happily married, middle-class couples from the Midwestern U.S. To assess how observed supportive behaviors may be differentially associated with self-reported support satisfaction, marital love, and marital conflict for men and women, we utilized a series of Actor Partner Interdependence Models (APIM). This dyadic approach revealed significant gender differences regarding how the supportive role enacted (i.e., provider versus recipient) contributed considerably to marital outcomes. Specifically, husbands’ sensitive support provision significantly predicted both spouses’ support satisfaction. Additionally, husbands’ sensitive support provision was significantly associated with wives’ marital love. Wives’ reported conflict was predicted by the combination of both providing and receiving sensitive support. For husbands’ outcomes, husbands’ own sensitive support provision was most critically associated with their reporting greater love and less conflict. These findings reveal notable gender differences as men’s ability to provide sensitive support was critical not only to their wives’ marital outcomes, but to their own as well. Our results build upon and extend the literature implicating the importance of examining gender differences in supportive interactions in marriage. Moreover, our findings suggest that simultaneous consideration of spousal support receipt and provision is critical when seeking to understand how support is related to marital outcomes for men and women.     

Relative Contributions of Childcare, Spousal Support, and Organizational Support in Reducing Work–Family Conflict for Men and Women: The Case of Turkey

The overarching purpose of the study was to investigate the role of three types of social support (i.e., spousal, childcare, and organizational support) in relation to work–family conflict (WFC) in dual-earner families with children ages 0–6 years. The relationship of WFC to psychological well-being and well-being in the domain of family was explored. Finally, the relationship of spousal support to psychological well-being and marital satisfaction was examined. A total of 434 participants (237 mothers, 197 fathers) in dual-earner families in Turkey with at least one preschool child participated in the study. The relative impact of childcare, spousal support, and organizational support on WFC and outcome variables was tested simultaneously for both men and women through structural equation modeling. Spousal support was related to WFC for women, whereas both spousal and organizational support were related to WFC for men. WFC had a negative relationship with psychological well-being, marital satisfaction, and parental role performance for both men and women. Implications of the results in relation to changing gender roles in a cultural context that is characterized by high collectivism and low gender egalitarianism are discussed. The paper received a Caroline Dexter Best Paper Award Nomination, Academy of Management Annual Meeting, New Orleans, August 2004.     

Preferences for Spousal Support Among Individuals With Cancer1

Although it is known that individuals have preferences for different forms or amounts of social support from others when dealing with life events, such preferences have not been subject to extensive empirical examination. We examined preferences for spousal emotional and instrumental support, as well as preferences for spousal control-encouraging responses, among 151 individuals with cancer. Dispositional and situation-specific factors were placed into a hypothetical model predicting support preferences. Results confirmed predictions: Preferences for emotional and instrumental aspects of support were related to dispositional (affiliative need), person (gender), and contextual (disease impairment) variables. As predicted, higher affiliative need predicted higher preference for emotional support. However, functional impairment did not predict preferences for more instrumental support, and this variable only predicted preferences for more emotional support among female patients. Individuals’ preferences for control encouragement from their spouses were associated with attributions of personal responsibility for solving general life problems and indirectly associated with internal locus of control. These results provide an initial conceptual model for understanding cancer patients’ preferences for support.     

Gender Differences in the Dimensionality of Social Support1

Although theoretical frameworks have been developed and research has been conducted in the area of social support, little attention has been given to the influence of gender on the dimensionality of social support. In addition, much of the research on social support has been conducted solely with student samples. In the present study, two samples (students, N = 304, and working adults, N = 301) completed a social support questionnaire. The survey instrument measured four types of social support (appraisal, instrumental, informational, and emotional) from four different sources (supervisor, coworker, spouse, and friends). For the student sample, women reported higher levels of social support than men on most dimensions (i.e., 11 of 16 dimensions), with 5 yielding statistically significant differences. For the sample of working adults, men reported higher levels of social support on most of the dimensions (i.e., 10 of 16), with 5 representing statistically significant differences. Differences in results between the two samples are discussed.     

Work and Family: Satisfaction,Stress, and Spousal Support

Married veterinarians (N = 242) provided information regarding work satisfaction, work‐related stress, marital‐family stress, and spousal support for career. Female veterinarians reported significantly greater effect of marital/family stress on career and less perceived spousal support for career than did their male counterparts. Areas of greatest work dissatisfaction for both genders were income and time required at work. No differences emerged between men and women on various measures of work satisfaction. In addition, no difference was found between the genders in the effect of work‐related stress on career.     

快乐感与社会支持的关系

采用量表法以304个成年人为被试研究了快乐感和社会支持的关系。差异检验表明,男性的正向情感和社会支持源显著多于女性;而女性对社会支持的利用度显著高于男性;在快乐感、负向情感和人际支持上没有显著的性别差异。回归分析表明,社会支持中的人际支持(主要包括配偶、父母、朋友、邻里、同事的支持)和支持利用度(包括遇到烦恼时对支持的利用以及团体参与程度)对快乐感、正向情感和负向情感具有较好的预测作用。     

Gender and the Choice of a Science Career: The Impact of Social Support and Possible Selves

This study examined the relationships among perceived social support, beliefs about how one would fare in a science career, and perceptions and choice of a career in science. Participants were 48 men and 33 women from the Midwestern United States who had been identified as gifted in mathematics and science and participated in a high school science enrichment program. They ranged in age from 24 to 28?years old, and the sample was predominantly White (83.3%). Participants completed an online measure approximately 10?years after the program ended examining their sources of support and beliefs about the self as a scientist to see how these variables influence perceptions of a science career and actual career. We expected that the relationship between perceived support from people and current job held would be mediated by participants’ beliefs about their personal life as a scientist in the future. Similarly, we expected that the relationship between a perceived supportive environment and having a science career would be mediated by participants’ beliefs about their career as a scientist in the future. Findings indicated that social support contributed directly to men’s and women’s ability to envision themselves in a future science career, which, in turn, predicted their interest in and motivation for a science career. No significant gender differences were found in the predictors of men’s and women’s perceptions and choice of a science career. Implications for recruitment of students into scientific majors and careers are discussed.     

Gender and sex role differences in the perception of social support

This study examined the relationships among support types (i.e., emotional, instrumental, and nonintimate social participation), gender, sex role orientation, and stress level among college undergraduates (N=253). Dependent variables included need, perceived availability, and satisfaction with support. Sex differences were found only in emotional support, with men reporting less need, perceived availability, and marginally less satisfaction than women. The only gender by sex role interaction was on need for emotional support. Traditional sex-typed men reported less need than traditional women, whereas there was no difference between androgynous men and women. While sex differences do exist for emotional support, the effects of sex role orientation on perceptions of social support appears to be somewhat circumscribed.     

Gender,Emotional Support,and Well-Being Among the Rural Elderly

The current study sought to clarify the effects of social support on the psychological well-being of rural elders. Data were provided by 180 older men and women (mean age = 73.6 years) living in Northern Appalachia. Similar to the demographic profile of this region, most (97.2%) of the participants were Caucasian. Although mean differences in perceptions of emotional support did not emerge, the relative importance of various sources of support differed for men and women. For men, higher satisfaction with family support was associated with lower negative affect and higher positive affect. For women, although satisfaction with emotional support from family and more years of education were associated with lower levels of negative affect, emotional support from friends enhanced positive affect. The results suggest that new programs may be needed in order to help older rural men and women to maintain well-being in late life.     

Attitudes Toward Violence Against Women: A Cross-Nation Study

An understanding of attitudes toward violence against women is vital for effective prevention strategies. In this study we examined attitudes regarding violence against women in samples of undergraduate women and men students from four countries: India, Japan, Kuwait, and the United States. Attitudes toward sexual assault and spousal physical violence differed between men and women and across the four countries. Variations in gender differences across countries indicated that, for attitudes regarding sexual assault of women in particular, sociocultural factors may be a stronger influence than gender. Findings suggest the importance of examining differences within the larger sociocultural context of political, historical, religious, and economic influences on attitudes toward gender roles and violence against women.     

Quantitative information presentation and gender: an interaction effect.

The authors investigated whether performance on mathematical test items would be influenced by an interaction between presentation format and gender. One hundred fourteen students in a management accounting course were randomly assigned either to a tabular format or to a graphics format. There were significant main effects for gender and presentation format; men outperformed women, and the subjects who received the tabular format outperformed the subjects who received the graphics format. A significant interaction supported the existence of a conditional relationship between performance on mathematical test items and presentation format. This relationship varied as a function of gender (symmetry permits the interchange of presentation format and gender). Simple effects for the interaction determined that the women who received the graphics presentation did not perform as well as their male counterparts, or as well as other women and men who received the tabular format. The results of this study indicate that presentation format is an important consideration in gender differences for mathematics performance.     

Mechanisms of Quality of Life and Social Support in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Cognitive and social factors are essential considerations in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patient management, but existing research is limited. This study aims to expand the IBD literature by examining the relationship between social supports and QoL, while examining mechanisms in these relationships. Consenting patients attending an IBD outpatient clinic were provided a survey package (N = 164). Regressions evaluated predictors of IBD-QoL, and catastrophizing and optimism were examined as mediators between social support and IBD-QoL. Diminished IBD-QoL was predicted by younger age, greater negative spousal responses, and less perceived spousal support. Mediation models showed helplessness catastrophizing to be the lone mediator, acting as a mechanism between both negative spousal responses and perceived spousal support with IBD-QoL. Social interaction variables are associated with IBD-QoL, but patients’ experience of helplessness acts to reduce their ability to benefit from social support. Patient care should consider supportive social and cognitive factors to improve IBD-QoL.     

Ethnicity and Social Support During Pregnancy

Data from two multi-ethnic prospective studies of African American, Latina, and non-Hispanic White pregnant women were used to examine the influence of contextual factors on social support processes during pregnancy. Multiple types of support (perceived support, received support, support satisfaction, network support) and sources of support (baby's father, family, friends) were assessed. The role of ethnicity in social support was examined after controlling for the contribution of related contextual factors (SES, marital status, age, parity, employment) to these processes. The impact of ethnicity and related contextual factors differed across sources of social support. Ethnic differences in support from family and friends, but not from the baby's father, emerged. However, marital status was a consistent predictor of support from the baby's father, and SES was a consistent predictor of support from friends. Overall, the findings of two studies suggest that although ethnicity is associated with support from friends and family, other contextual factors, such as marital status and SES, influence support processes during pregnancy.     

Social Support in Academic Programs and Family Environments: Sex Differences and Role Conflicts for Graduate Students

We hoped to identify the sources and types of social support that are most beneficial for helping graduate students cope with stress. A second purpose of our study was to identify sex differences in stress and the most beneficial types of support. Students living in graduate student housing were surveyed to assess (a) social support in their academic programs and in their family environments, (b) recent stressful life events, and (c) depression and anxiety as psychological symptoms of stress. Women reported significantly more stress, more symptoms of stress, and significantly less support from their academic departments and family environments than did men. Family support had only buffering effects, but no direct effects on stress symptoms for women. Graduate program and family support had direct effects, but no buffering effects on stress symptoms for men. These results may indicate greater role strain for women, perhaps resulting from less support for their multiple roles and greater concerns about balancing academic and family demands.     

Age and gender differences in and personality correlates of loneliness in different relationships

This study examined age and gender differences in and personality correlates of loneliness in different relationships. Loneliness was measured in three groups of subjects (college men, college women, and elderly women) with the Differential Loneliness Scale which assesses dissatisfaction with four types of relationships (Family, Larger Groups, Friendships, and Romantic/Sexual). Age and gender differences were significant. Compared to elderly women, college women expressed more dissatisfaction with their Family and Large Group relationships. Compared to college women, elderly women expressed more dissatisfaction with their Friendships and Romantic/Sexual relationships. With regard to gender differences, college men expressed more dissatisfaction with Family, Large Group, and Friendship relationships than college women. For each subject group, dissatisfaction scores were correlated with health status, locus of control, social support, depression, and self-consciousness. Correlations varied with type of relationship as well as with age and gender. The group differences and the varying patterns of correlations support the use of a multidimensional approach to the study of loneliness. Results are discussed in terms of previous research and future investigations.