Personality and gender differences in global perspective

Men's and women's personalities appear to differ in several respects. Social role theories of development assume gender differences result primarily from perceived gender roles, gender socialization and sociostructural power differentials. As a consequence, social role theorists expect gender differences in personality to be smaller in cultures with more gender egalitarianism. Several large cross‐cultural studies have generated sufficient data for evaluating these global personality predictions. Empirically, evidence suggests gender differences in most aspects of personality—Big Five traits, Dark Triad traits, self‐esteem, subjective well‐being, depression and values—are conspicuously larger in cultures with more egalitarian gender roles, gender socialization and sociopolitical gender equity. Similar patterns are evident when examining objectively measured attributes such as tested cognitive abilities and physical traits such as height and blood pressure. Social role theory appears inadequate for explaining some of the observed cultural variations in men's and women's personalities. Evolutionary theories regarding ecologically‐evoked gender differences are described that may prove more useful in explaining global variation in human personality.     

人格心理学的学科架构初探

人格心理学作为心理学体系中的重要分支之一,自创立以来却一直缺乏一个完整统一的学科架构。这种状况极大地限制了该学科的发展。文章回顾了人格心理学的起源和发展,探讨了学科发展的趋势,呈现了当下几种主要的学科架构。在综合比较的基础上,对其中有代表性的Clonlinger人格“描述—动力—发展”的“3D”模型进行了修正：（1）增加了人格理论;（2）把第一个“D”由“人格描述”改为“人格表现”;（3）对原有“3D”的内容进行补充和完善。得出了对人格心理学学科架构的“3D”修正模型：即理论加“3D”     

Integrating the most unintuitive empirical observations of 2007 in the domain of personality and social psychology into a unified framework

Two obstacles impede the development of productive theories in personality, social, and organizational psychology. First, the distinct frameworks are seldom integrated; the various theories sometimes yield incompatible implications. Second, because many findings in these fields seem intuitive, these observations do not augment the validity of these theories. To override these issues, this paper integrates the 70 most unintuitive findings of 2007 into a unified framework, derived from personality systems interaction theory. Specifically, 10 participants extracted the most unintuitive observations from 17 scholarly journals. These findings were reconciled within a single framework that generates 41 testable propositions. The framework assumes that an associative self system, underpinned by a vast network of schemas, governs behavior as well as enhances intuition, engagement, creativity, and cooperation. When individuals experience a threat, this system is inhibited, unless the requisite defense mechanisms to accommodate potential hazards have been developed. Furthermore, individuals attempt to distance themselves from unassailable threats, which activate an analytical system that formulates plans that could accommodate future contingencies. These plans are retained in memory or executed if individuals have acquired sufficient confidence.     

A tale of two visions: can a new view of personality help integrate psychology?

Personality psychology studies how psychological systems work together. Consequently, the field can act as a unifying resource for the broader discipline of psychology. Yet personality's current fieldwide organization promotes a fragmented view of the person, seen through such competing theories as the psychodynamic, trait, and humanistic. There exists an alternative--a systems framework for personality--that focuses on 4 topics: identifying personality, personality's parts, its organization, and its development. This new framework and its view of personality are described. The framework is applied to such issues as personality measurement, psychotherapy outcome research, and education. The new framework may better organize the field of personality and help with its mission of addressing how major psychological systems interrelate.     

Thinking bigger: The Cronbachian paradigm & personality theory integration

Personality theories largely mirror disparities between fundamental paradigms that guide most psychology: one based upon Galton’s emphasis on inter-individual differences and the lexical hypothesis; the other inspired by Wundt is focused upon intra-individual processes, such as temperament and Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory. Previous integrations of personality models using these paradigms failed to account for observed variance, suggesting model incommensurability. We propose that a broader conception—developed from Cronbach and colleagues’ generalisability theory—provides an effective integrating framework, and show how Galtonian and Wundtian models may be assimilated within Cronbachian approaches. Additionally, Cronbachian models have novel practical implications. Application of the Cronbachian paradigm to personality will be challenging, but provides an opportunity to achieve genuine coherence in personality research.     

Effects of global and contextualized personality on relationship satisfaction

Researchers have made great strides in conceptualizing and assessing contextualized personality—how people’s personalities vary across different contexts (e.g., among friends, co-workers, and relationship partners). We investigated how global and contextualized personality traits are linked to relationship satisfaction. In Study 1, longitudinal associations between global and contextualized personality and relationship satisfaction were examined in a sample of adults in committed dating relationships. Study 2 investigated actor and partner effects of global and contextualized personality on relationship satisfaction in undergraduate couples. Study 3 used observer ratings of contextualized personality traits expressed in couples’ daily Instant Messages (IMs). These results demonstrate that contextualized personality—in particular neuroticism—is linked to the quality of both current and future romantic relationships.     

Equilibria in Personality States: A Conceptual Primer for Dynamics in Personality States

We provide a basic, step-by-step introduction to the core concepts and mathematical fundamentals of dynamic systems modelling through applying the Change as Outcome model, a simple dynamical systems model, to personality state data. This model characterizes changes in personality states with respect to equilibrium points, estimating attractors and their strength in time series data. Using data from the Personality and Interpersonal Roles study, we find that mean state is highly correlated with attractor position but weakly correlated with attractor strength, suggesting strength provides added information not captured by summaries of the distribution. We then discuss how taking a dynamic systems approach to personality states also entails a theoretical shift. Instead of emphasizing partitioning trait and state variance, dynamic systems analyses of personality states emphasize characterizing patterns generated by mutual, ongoing interactions. Change as Outcome modelling also allows for estimating nuanced effects of personality development after significant life changes, separating effects on characteristic states after the significant change and how strongly she or he is drawn towards those states (an aspect of resiliency). Estimating this model demonstrates core dynamics principles and provides quantitative grounding for measures of ‘repulsive’ personality states and ‘ambivert’ personality structures. © 2020 European Association of Personality Psychology     

The personality differentiation by intelligence hypothesis: A measurement invariance investigation

Stability in the measurement of personality is crucial to its construct and predictive validity. The personality differentiation by intelligence hypothesis suggests that intelligence may be a threat to the measurement of personality. This study builds on existing literature by applying multigroup confirmatory factor analytic measurement invariance techniques to the item-level responses of a commonly used personality inventory. In contrast to recently published findings, our results suggest that the measurement of personality is not equivalent across intelligence levels. Though these results have important implications for the use of personality in research and practice, we maintain that personality measures are still important predictors of key criteria. We discuss future research directions, and hope that the current study highlights the need to increase the sophistication of currently available measurement techniques, and will bring continued examination of the personality differentiation by intelligence hypothesis.     

The Big-5 ± 2? The impact of cognitive complexity on the factor structure of the five-factor model

Despite the popularity and prevalence of the five-factor model (FFM) of personality, numerous questions regarding its psychometric properties have yet to be investigated. One issue of particular concern is the underlying premise that these five personality factors are universally shared by all individuals. The present study examined the impact of cognitive complexity on the FFM by directly assessing whether individuals with higher or lower levels of cognitive complexity have personalities comprised of a greater or lesser number of factors, respectively, than the five widely accepted factors outlined by the FFM. Results indicated that individuals with lower levels of cognitive complexity have personalities best described by a three-factor model, whereas individuals with higher levels of cognitive complexity have personalities best described by a seven-factor model. In light of these findings, the appropriateness of universally applying the FFM to individuals of differing levels of cognitive complexity is discussed.     

Seeing or smelling? Assessing personality on the basis of different stimuli

This study examines whether people can accurately assess personality on the basis of facial images and body odor and whether attractiveness influences these relationships. Three personality dimensions of target individuals – neuroticism, extraversion and dominance – were measured with the NEO Five-Factor Inventory, a one-item measure of dominance and the reports of close acquaintances. Naive observers assessed neuroticism and dominance at above-chance levels based on body odor, and they assessed extraversion (and in some cases, neuroticism) at above-chance levels based on either facial images alone or body odor and facial images presented together. The accuracy differed depending on the sex of the targets and the raters. In addition, facial and body odor attractiveness predicted the targets’ personalities and the assessments of their personalities. These results show that the accuracy of personality assessment changes when judges assess different types of stimuli.     

ABC-EBDI: An affective framework for BDI agents

The aim of this work is to improve the modelling of intelligent agents that reproduce realistic human behavior. BDI frameworks have been successfully used in this context and have evolved in recent years into EBDI frameworks, in which affective aspects are considered. In this work, an affective EBDI framework named ABC-EBDI is presented. The proposal integrates a well-known psychotherapeutic model, the ABC model, combined with other affective theories, to support the modeling of the agents’ behavioral and affective responses in a unifying and realistic manner. The distinguishing feature of the proposed framework is the classification of the agent’s cognitive-affective process as either rational or irrational. This process will lead to functional emotions and adaptive conduct in the first case and dysfunctional emotions and maladaptive behaviors in the second. The framework models affect by taking into account emotions, mood and personality. It also models human conduct regarding not only actions, but also the way those actions are expressed. A prototype has been implemented based on a bad news scenario and a first evaluation with users has been carried out with promising results.     

Personality psychology as the integrative study of traits and worldviews

Personality psychology inevitably studies human beings not just as mechanical systems, but also as rational agents, whose experiences and actions are imbued with meaning. The purpose of this paper is to clarify the implications of taking this core element of personality psychology seriously, and to thereby contribute to the development of an integrative and normative framework for the field. I argue that personality can be studied both through trait constructs, referring to objective behavioral regularities, and through worldview constructs, referring to subjective sources of meaning, and try to show that worldviews are, contrary to popular belief, not inherently less universal, or in other ways less basic, than traits. I conclude by emphasizing the importance of more systematic study of worldviews, integration across the trait-worldview divide, and complementing the individual differences approach with personalistic methodology, for the development of richer and more unified portraits of personalities.     

智力和人格内隐观对大学生应对方式和抑郁的影响——变量中心和个体中心分析

为考察智力和人格内隐观对大学生应对方式和抑郁的影响,采用智力和人格内隐观问卷、简易应对方式问卷和抑郁量表对624名大学生进行测查。结果如下：（1）变量中心的分析结果表明,整体上大学生智力和人格内隐观仅对积极应对的预测作用显著。（2）为考察智力和人格内隐观在大学生群体中的组合类型,采用个体中心的分析思路对智力和人格内隐观得分进行潜在剖面分析,可将大学生的内隐观划分为四种类型：智力/人格固存观型、智力/人格内隐观适中型、智力增长观/人格可塑观型、智力固存观/人格可塑观型。四类大学生在智力内隐观上的得分两两差异显著;除智力增长观/人格可塑观型与智力固存观/人格可塑观型外,四类大学生在人格内隐观上的得分也两两差异显著。（3）智力增长观/人格可塑观型大学生的积极应对得分显著高于其他三类大学生,而消极应对和抑郁显著低于其他三类大学生;智力固存观/人格可塑观型大学生的消极应对和抑郁显著高于其他三类大学生。     

Relationship between Cattell’s 16PF and fluid and crystallized intelligence

The aim of the study was to explore the relationship between the five global factors and 16 dimensions of Cattell’s personality model and fluid and crystallized intelligence. A total of 105 third graders (45.7% males) of three high schools participated in the research. Fluid intelligence was measured by Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices and crystallized intelligence was measured by the Mill Hill Vocabulary Scale. Personality traits were measured by the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire. Anxiety is correlated neither with fluid nor with crystallized intelligence. Extraversion and Self-Control are negatively correlated with fluid intelligence whereas Tough-Mindedness is positively correlated with it. Independence is positively correlated with crystallized intelligence and Tough-Mindedness is negatively correlated with it. Regression analysis reveals that all broad personality factors, except anxiety, are significant predictors of fluid intelligence. When combined together, these factors account for 25% of the variance of fluid intelligence scores. The regression model with crystallized intelligence as a criterion variable is not statistically significant. The study results are consistent with the Chamorro-Premuzic and Furnham’s (2005) two-level conceptual framework. Although using a different taxonomy of personality, the results are in accordance with the model’s presuppositions.     

Older sisters and younger brothers: The impact of siblings on preference for competition

Psychology studies have long argued the possibility that sibling structure, such as birth order and the sex of siblings, shapes one’s personality traits. One of the core issues involved is that of who rates subjects’ personality traits in studies. The present studies (N = 135 in Study 1, N = 232 in Study 2) surpassed the examinations performed in previous studies by obtaining information regarding one of the key personality traits, preference for competition, using a framework developed via experimental economics rather than subjective ratings. Despite the fact that the two studies involved different types of task, we consistently observed that older sisters exerted a significant impact on their younger siblings in both studies. In particular, having an older sister was negatively associated with men’s competitive preferences. We also obtained suggestive evidence that having an older sister was positively associated with women’s competitive preferences. Our results support sibling hypotheses from the perspective of experimental economics.     

人格智力:一种被“冷落”的“热智力”

人格智力(PI)是指个体在对人格及其相关信息推理的基础上,利用这些信息提高一个人的思想、计划和生活经验的能力,包括识别人格信息、形成人格模型、引导个人选择以及系统化计划和目标等相关领域。作为一种新兴的“热智力”,PI并没有像当年情绪智力(EI)那样受人关注。文章从PI的范畴、领域及其局限性等角度分析了这一新能力遭遇“冷落”的原因,指出了PI在整合以人为中心的智力过程中存在概念宽泛、界限模糊、测量的科学性及其形成与发展等诸多值得反思的问题。     

Proneness for psychological flow in everyday life: Associations with personality and intelligence

Flow is an experience of enjoyment, concentration, and low self-awareness that occurs during active task performance. We investigated associations between the tendency to experience flow (flow proneness), Big Five personality traits and intelligence in two samples. We hypothesized a negative relation between flow proneness and neuroticism, since negative affect could interfere with the affective component of flow. Secondly, since sustained attention is a component of flow, we tested whether flow proneness is positively related to intelligence. Sample 1 included 137 individuals who completed tests for flow proneness, intelligence, and Big Five personality. In Sample 2 (all twins; n = 2539), flow proneness and intelligence, but not personality, were measured. As hypothesized, we found a negative correlation between flow proneness and neuroticism in Sample 1. Additional exploratory analyses revealed a positive association between flow proneness and conscientiousness. There was no correlation between flow proneness and intelligence. Although significant for some comparisons, associations between intelligence and flow proneness were also very weak in Sample 2. We conclude that flow proneness is associated with personality rather than intelligence, and discuss that flow may be a state of effortless attention that relies on different mechanisms from those involved in attention during mental effort.     

Les théories implicites de l’intelligence : une question de perspectives ?

IntroductionImplicit theories of intelligence are beliefs that people form regarding the malleability of intelligence. The so-called “growth” and “fixed” mindsets respectively view intelligence as a characteristic that can or cannot be changed. Psychology, as a science, also offers diverging responses. The developmental and differential traditions in the study of intelligence merely provide different answers because they do not focus on the same sources of variability nor on the same dimensions of intelligence.ObjectivesThe research question that guided the present studies was: Are people's naïve theories influenced by the same factors that drive developmental and differential psychologists to different conclusions?MethodIn Study 1, we first assessed participants’ (n = 509) reference norm orientation (i.e. whether they tend to focus on individual or social comparison), using a task in which they had to predict the school results of an hypothetical child. Then we administered a French version of Dweck's (2007) mindset scale. In study 2, we first asked participants (n = 530) to choose between two definitions of intelligence focusing either on its fluid or crystalized dimensions. Then we administered the French Mindset Scale and asked participants to justify their conclusion.ResultsBoth variables of interest (reference norm orientation and preferred definition of intelligence) had a significant effect on the participant's incremental beliefs.ConclusionThe results of the two studies as well as the qualitative analysis of participants’ arguments suggest that mindsets, like scientific theories, partly stem from the fact that the same question regarding intelligence malleability can be approached with two different perspectives.