When stereotypes disadvantage boys: Strength of stereotypes in mathematics and language arts and their relations with grades

There is growing concern about boys' lagging performance in school, not only in language arts, where the gap is particularly pronounced, but also in mathematics. Stereotypes associating one gender with language arts or with mathematics are likely to contribute to these gaps. Such stereotypes can translate into explicit beliefs such as the extent to which students are aware of societal stereotypes or the extent to which they personally believe stereotypes to be true, but also indirectly into performance following a stereotype threat manipulation. However, few studies have considered these multiple stereotype expressions in both mathematics and language arts to examine their importance in predicting boys' and girls' actual grades in school. To fill this gap, two complementary studies examined high school boys' and girls' awareness and endorsement of stereotypes about both language arts (n = 299) and mathematics (n = 243), as well as whether stereotype threat impaired boys' performance on a spelling test. Although the effect of stereotype threat was not significant overall, our results showed that students were aware of and endorsed strong stereotypes advantaging girls in language arts. In mathematics, students endorsed counter-traditional stereotypes slightly advantaging girls. Our results also showed that these multiple expressions of stereotypes related to students' grades. In doing so, our work provides insights regarding possible targets for interventions to reduce gender gaps disadvantaging boys in school.     

The effects of didactic classroom instruction versus field exposure on career maturity

This study tested two types of career training (field exposure and didactic classroom) to determine which is more effective in bringing about the development of career maturity. Forty-six first-year Upward Bound students were assigned to either a field exposure or a didactic group by the use of a stratified random assignment technique. A pretest/post-test design was utilized with the Career Maturity Inventory as the data-collecting instrument. The data were analyzed by analysis of covariance. The results of the study indicate that field exposure career training is an effective method to increase career maturity.     

Gender and racial differences in mathematical performance

The authors examined gender and racial differences in mathematics performance among 5th- and 8th-grade students in the United States. Math performance was assessed by scores on the math-concepts and math-computation sections of the California Achievement Test (CTB/McGraw-Hill, 1986) given at the end of the previous year. There were no significant gender differences, but in both grades, the White students scored significantly higher than the Black students. The racial differences were more pronounced in the scores for concepts than in the scores for computation. Responses to a parent questionnaire showed significant relationships between parents' self-reported math anxiety, parents' most advanced math course, and parents' education level in relation to the child's math performance. Differences in these relationships suggest that, although parents' beliefs and attitudes about math influence their child's math performance, the relationship is complex and may vary with race.     

Attitudes of Counselors and Disadvantaged Students Toward School Guidance

This study of attitudes toward school guidance indicated that a differential pattern of endorsement of attitude items exists between experienced counselors and Upward Bound participants. A statistically significant difference was discovered between counselors and Upward Bound participants in terms of median attitude endorsement. While this difference did not appear to be seriously discrepant in a qualitative sense, at least one-third of the Upward Bound participants held somewhat negative attitudes.     

中小学生数学知识观的调查研究

本研究采用12道假设性情境题目和包含数学涉及运算、思考、实用性三个维度的数学认识问卷,选取90名六年级小学生和106名初二学生作为被试,探讨中小学生的数学知识观。结果表明:1)中小学生数学知识观形成及发展与学校数学课程内容紧密相关。2)中小学生数学知识观存在差异,主要表现在初二学生对假设性情境的认同程度显著地高于六年级学生;在数学认识问卷的数学实用性维度上,六年级学生的肯定程度显著地高于初二学生。3)从总体上看,学生的学业水平与数学知识观的关系不大。     

Do teachers’ cultural beliefs matter for students’ school adaptation? A multilevel analysis of students’ academic achievement and psychological school adjustment

Based on two large-scale studies from Germany, we examined how different types of teachers’ cultural beliefs are related to immigrant students’ school adaptation. Specifically, we investigated the relationship of teachers' multicultural beliefs appreciating cultural diversity, their egalitarian beliefs focusing on all students' similarities and their assimilationist beliefs that immigrant students should conform to the mainstream context with immigrant students' academic achievement and psychological school adjustment as indicators of their school adaptation. We also explored all of these associations for non-immigrant students. Study 1 used data on the multicultural, egalitarian, and assimilationist beliefs of German language (N_Teachers?=?220) and mathematics (N_Teachers?=?245) teachers and on students’ achievement and feelings of helplessness in German language classes (N_Students?=?2606) and mathematics classes (N_Students?=?2851) as well as students’ school satisfaction. Study 2 analyzed data on teachers’ multicultural and egalitarian beliefs (N_Teachers?=?456) and students’ achievement and self-concept in mathematics (N_Students?=?4722). Overall, multilevel analyses revealed no relationship between teachers’ cultural beliefs and any of the indicators of immigrant and non-immigrant students’ school adaptation. These findings challenge the notion that overall, teachers’ cultural beliefs effectively translate into students’ school adaptation.

     

Opposites detract: Middle school peer group antipathies

This study examines variability in patterns of peer group antipathy. Same-grade adolescent peer groups were identified from sociometric nominations of preferred affiliates in a community sample of 600 Finnish ninth-grade middle school students (mean age = 15.0 years). Hierarchical linear modeling determined characteristics of youths in actor groups (nominators) that predicted antipathy for youths in target groups (nominatees) on the basis of target group characteristics. Most antipathies were based on dissimilarity between groups representing the mainstream culture and groups opposed to it. The higher a peer group’s school burnout, the more its members disliked students in peer groups with higher school grades and students in peer groups with higher sports participation. Conversely, the higher a peer group’s school grades, the more its members disliked students in peer groups with higher school burnout. Students in peer groups with less problem behavior disliked students in peer groups with more problem behavior. There was some evidence of rivalry within the mainstream culture: The higher a group’s school grades, the more its members disliked groups whose members participated in sports.     

Self‐regulated learning of basic arithmetic skills: A longitudinal study

Background. Several studies have examined young primary school children's use of strategies when solving simple addition and subtraction problems. Most of these studies have investigated students’ strategy use as if they were isolated processes. To date, we have little knowledge about how math strategies in young students are related to other important aspects in self‐regulated learning. Aim. The main purpose of this study was to examine relations between young primary school children's basic mathematical skills and their use of math strategies, their metacognitive competence and motivational beliefs, and to investigate how students with basic mathematics skills at various levels differ in respect to the different self‐regulation components. Sample. The participants were comprised of 27 Year 2 students, all from the same class. Method. The data were collected in three stages (autumn Year 2, spring Year 2, and autumn Year 3). The children's arithmetic skills were measured by age relevant tests, while strategy use, metacognitive competence, and motivational beliefs were assessed through individual interviews. The participants were divided into three performance groups; very good students, good students, and not‐so‐good students. Results. Analyses revealed that young primary school children at different levels of basic mathematics skill may differ in several important aspects of self‐regulated learning. Analyses revealed that a good performance in addition and subtraction was related not only to the children's use of advanced mathematics strategies, but also to domain‐specific metacognitive competence, ability attribution for success, effort attribution for failure, and high perceived self‐efficacy when using specific strategies. Conclusions. The results indicate that instructional efforts to facilitate self‐regulated learning of basic arithmetic skills should address cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational aspects of self‐regulation. This is particularly important for low‐performing students.     

Motivation as a Mediator of Social Disparities in Academic Achievement

The present study aimed at contributing to the understanding of social disparities in relation to students' academic achievement in the science, technology, engineering and mathematics domains. A sample of n = 321 German 11th graders completed measures of their family socio‐economic status (SES), general intelligence, domain‐specific ability self‐concepts and subjective scholastic values in math, physics and chemistry. Students' grades in these subjects received four months after testing served as criteria. Significant mediation effects were found for all motivational variables between fathers' SES and students' achievement, whereas for mothers' SES, only children's academic self‐concept in chemistry was a significant mediator. These results also held when students' general intelligence was controlled. Additionally, we controlled for students' grades before testing to investigate which variables mediated the influence of SES on change in school performance. Motivational variables significantly mediated the influence of fathers' SES on change in school performance in math but not in chemistry and physics. Intelligence significantly mediated the influence of fathers' SES on change in school performance in physics and chemistry but not in mathematics. The impact of mothers' SES on change in grades in chemistry was mediated by intelligence. Among others, the reasons potentially accounting for the differential influences of fathers' and mothers' SES are discussed. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Cross-Age Peer Tutoring and Fluency-Based Instruction to Achieve Fluency with Mathematics Computation Skills: A Randomized Controlled Trial

The current study employed a randomized controlled trial to evaluate the use of peer tutoring and fluency-based instruction to increase mathematics fluency with addition and subtraction computation skills. Forty-one elementary school students between the ages of eight and 12 years participated in the 8-week study using cross-age peer tutoring, Say All Fast Minute Every Day Shuffled, frequency building, and the morningside math facts curriculum (Johnson in Morningside mathematics fluency: math facts (vol 1–6; curriculum program), Morningside Press, Seattle, 2008). Pre- and post-test measures of mathematics fluency and calculation were conducted with all participants. A measure of social skills and competing problem behaviors was also conducted at pre- and post-testing to evaluate any additional effects of the peer tutoring model. The results demonstrated a statistically significant difference between groups on measures of mathematics fluency, with the experimental group demonstrating significantly higher scores than the control group at post-testing. There were no significant differences between groups on measures of social skills and competing problem behaviors or calculation. The findings indicate that cross-age peer tutoring and fluency-based instruction resulted in positive outcomes for tutees in the mathematics domain, specifically mathematics fluency.     

Do gender differences in academic attainment correspond with scholastic attitudes? An exploratory study in a UK secondary school

Research has examined how standardized tests give rise to gender differences in English and STEM attainment, but little research has explored gender differences in classroom-based attainment and the degree to which these correspond to differences in school-related attitudes. To explore the extent to which gender-achievement gaps in classroom-based performance parallel differences in self-perceptions and scholastic attitudes. An independent sample of first (n = 187, age 11–12, Study 1) and second-year students (n = 113, age 12–13, Study 2) from a UK comprehensive secondary school completed a questionnaire measuring academic mindset, self-efficacy, self-concept, competence beliefs, personal and social self-esteem, and endorsement of gender-subject and career stereotypes. Responses were then matched to their respective classroom grades in English, mathematics, science, and computing. Girls outperformed boys in English in their first year but reported lower global self-esteem and greater endorsement of science-career stereotypes. Conversely, girls outperformed boys in mathematics in their second year, but paradoxically reported lower self-concept and competence beliefs in mathematics and science, and higher competence beliefs in English. Across both studies, mindset, self-efficacy, competence beliefs, and social self-esteem were positively related to English attainment; academic self-efficacy was positively related to mathematics attainment; and mindset, self-efficacy, self-concept, and competence beliefs were positively related to science attainment. Gender-achievement gaps in classroom-based academic attainment are complex and highly nuanced; they appear to vary between school subjects across years and may not correspond with similar differences in self-perceptions and scholastic attitudes.     

数学教学中培养学生学习自我效能感的实验研究

通过构建的渗透培育模式,以初中二年级数学教学为依托,运用教学实验方法探索数学教学中渗透学生学习自我效能感培养的有效性。采用实验组、对照组前后测实验设计,以《自我效能感自陈式问卷》、《数学自我效能问卷》和《中学生心理健康问卷》为测量工具。结果表明:实验后,实验班自我效能感高于前测,高于对照班,差异显著;在学习压力、适应不良、情绪不平衡、心理不平衡及总分上,实验班学生低于对照班,差异显著;数学学业成绩实验班高于对照班,高于实验前,但无显著差异。说明该模式能够显著提高学生学习自我效能感和心理健康水平,促进其学业进步。     

Efficacy Expectations and Vocational Interests as Mediators between Sex and Choice of Math/Science College Majors: A Longitudinal Study

A longitudinal study was conducted to test the mediational role of efficacy expectations in relation to sex differences in the choice of a math/science college major. Data on 101 students were gathered prior to their entering college and then again after they had declared a major 3 years later. Path analytic results support the importance of both math self-efficacy beliefs and vocational interest in mathematics in predicting entry into math/science majors and mediating sex differences in these decisions. Also, students who described themselves as more extroverted were less likely to take additional math classes in high school. Students with stronger artistic vocational interests chose majors less related to math and science. School personnel are strongly encouraged to develop programs that challenge the crystallization of efficacy beliefs and vocational interest patterns before students enter college.     

The Effects of Classroom Guidance on Children's Success in School

The authors investigated the effects of classroom guidance on children's classroom behavior, attitudes toward school, and achievement in language arts and mathematics. Pretreatment and posttreatment data were collected on each variable for the treatment and control groups. The study involved 896 children (grades 4 and 5) from 18 different schools in North Carolina. The children came from virtually every geographic region of North Carolina and represented varying economic, social, and cultural environments. Eighteen school counselors volunteered to lead the guidance sessions for children in the treatment group. Results showed the treatment group (n = 453) improving and the control group (n = 443) declining on two measures of classroom behavior and on a single measure of attitude toward school. The differences in score changes between the groups on all these measures were statistically significant (p<.001). The results showed no significant differences in language and math grade changes between the groups. The differences in language grade changes between the groups approached significance (p<.10, however, with the treatment group's language grades improving and the control group's language grades not changing.     

初中生数学焦虑的调查及其调控研究

数学焦虑既是心理科学研究的对象,又与教育、教学,特别是学科教学密切相关。本文调查发现:部分初中生存在过度的数学焦虑,并且在年级、性别等维度上具有明显差异;教师的评价方式、课堂气氛、数学考试是形成数学焦虑的主要原因。运用三条教学策略的实验研究表明,数学焦虑是可以调控的,而且数学焦虑的缓解对学生数学成绩的提高有一定的促进作用。     

Mathematics Participation and Mathematics Achievement Across Secondary School: The Role of Gender

The present study investigated whether the relationship between mathematics participation and mathematics achievement is reciprocal for boys and girls. In Years 1, 2, 4 and 6 (US grades 7, 8, 10 and 12), we administered mathematics achievement tests to a cohort of 1,495 Flemish students and collected data on the number of classroom hours allocated to mathematics. A cross-lagged panel design was used to analyze the data. Evidence was found for a reciprocal relationship between mathematics participation and mathematics achievement, particularly in Years 4 and 6 (US grades 10 and 12). The results suggest that boys’ better performance in mathematics is related to their higher participation in math, whereas other factors—in addition to gender differences in math achievement—play a role in explaining why boys participate more in mathematics than girls.     

The development of beliefs about spelling and their relationship to spelling performance

This study examined relations among spelling performance and students' beliefs about spelling, including self-efficacy for spelling ability, outcome expectancy for spelling, and attributions for good spelling across grades 4, 7, and 10. Spelling self-efficacy remained relatively constant across grades. Spelling outcome expectancies for adult life and school declined across grades, as did effort and ability attributions for spelling success, with a disproportional decrease in ability attributions between grades 4 and 7. Self-efficacy was the strongest predictor of spelling performance at all grade levels; attribution for ability entered into the regression for grade 4 students, while outcome expectancies for school and writing were more important in grades 7 and 10. Cluster analyses on the grade 10 sample showed that students with high efficacy as spellers and high outcome expectancy of spelling for writing were the best spellers, with the highest performance reserved for those who attributed good spelling more to effort than ability. The impact of spelling instruction on developing beliefs is discussed.     

Neuroanatomical correlates of performance in a state‐wide test of math achievement

The development of math skills is a critical component of early education and a strong indicator of later school and economic success. Recent research utilizing population‐normed, standardized measures of math achievement suggest that structural and functional integrity of parietal regions, especially the intraparietal sulcus, are closely related to the development of math skills. However, it is unknown how these findings relate to in‐school math learning. The present study is the first to address this issue by investigating the relationship between regional differences in grey matter (GM) volume and performance in grade‐level mathematics as measured by a state‐wide, school‐based test of math achievement (TCAP math) in children from 3rd to 8th grade. Results show that increased GM volume in the bilateral hippocampal formation and the right inferior frontal gyrus, regions associated with learning and memory, is associated with higher TCAP math scores. Secondary analyses revealed that GM volume in the left angular gyrus had a stronger relationship to TCAP math in grades 3–4 than in grades 5–8 while the relationship between GM volume in the left inferior frontal gyrus and TCAP math was stronger for grades 5–8. These results suggest that the neuroanatomical architecture related to in‐school math achievement differs from that related to math achievement measured by standardized tests, and that the most related neural structures differ as a function of grade level. We suggest, therefore, that the use of school‐relevant outcome measures is critical if neuroscience is to bridge the gap to education.     

初中生数学自我效能问卷的编制

根据国内外关于数学自我效能研究的文献,结合我国初中生数学学习的内容特点与实际背景情况,编制数学自我效能问卷。研究以初一与初二学生为对象,采用开放式问卷对188名学生和53名数学教师进行调查,首先编制出44个项目的初测问卷;采用封闭式问卷对479名学生的初测结果进行验证性因素分析与项目分析,形成了包含日常生活中数学任务的效能、数学相关课程的效能与数学学业问题解决效能三个维度的26个项目的正式问卷;最后对350名学生施测正式问卷。分析研究结果表明,该数学自我效能问卷的因素结构清晰,具有合理的信度和效度。     

Reducing stereotype threat in urban schools

Research suggests student performance may be negatively influenced by stereotype threat, “being at risk of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one’s group” (Steele and Aronson in J Personal Soc Psychol 69(5):797, 1995). However, studies have also found that educating students about stereotype threat and the nature of intelligence can attenuate its effects. This paper explored whether a brief intervention could improve performance and attitudes for 109 at-risk students in a large urban school. Results found the intervention did not result in statistically significant differences in grades, or increases in student beliefs about their ability to succeed in school. Educational implications are discussed.