Setting and response generalization in rational-emotive therapy: A case study

A single case study (n=1) conducted during therapy investigated the relationship between disputing irrational beliefs in vivo and setting and response generalization. Irrational beliefs associated with the subject's anger and depression were disputed at different intervals over a ten week period utilizing a multiple baseline design across four classes in a school setting (setting 1). Depression and anger were rated several times each week. The subject's level of anxiety was also rated in setting 1 but the irrational beliefs associated with it were not disputed. Anger, depression, and anxiety were rated without disputation in a separate work setting (setting 2). Affect ratings significantly decreased across both settings throughout the ten week period. Results indicated that 1) disputing irrational beliefs associated with anger and depression in setting 1 led to reductions in anxiety in this setting (response generalization), 2) anger and depression reductions in setting 2 paralleled setting 1 reductions (setting generalization), and 3) anxiety reductionsWilliam J. Ruth, PhD, Staff Psychologist and practicum supervisor, Institute for Rational-Emotive Therapy, NY City; School Psychologist, Board of Cooperative Educational Services, Southern Westchester.Raymond DiGiuseppe, PhD, ABPP, Director of Training and Research, Institute for Rational-Emotive Therapy, NY City; Graduate Professor, St. John's University, NY City; co-author,Practitioner's Guide to Rational-Emotive Therapy and RET with Alcoholics and Substance Abusers.     

Irrational Beliefs and Self-Management as Separable Predictors of Anxiety and Depression

Irrational beliefs and self-management are both cognitive-behavioral constructs that are integral in modern Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy and Self-Management Therapy, respectively. Both irrational beliefs and self-management have been linked to anxiety and depression, and there is evidence for their usefulness for these types of distress. This is the first study to consider irrational beliefs and self-management as simultaneous predictors of anxiety and depression. An outpatient clinical sample (n = 51) completed measures of irrational beliefs, self-management, and emotional symptoms. Results indicated that as simultaneous predictors of fear and worry, self-management did not account for any additional variance accounted for by irrational beliefs. However, both irrational beliefs and self-management predicted unique variance in depression, negative affect, and positive affect. Exploratory analyses with single diagnosis (n = 26) and multiple diagnoses (n = 25) subsamples provided some divergent results. These results are discussed in terms of case conceptualization and potential future applications in the treatment of affective disorders, in particular depression.     

Self-Compassion,Self-Esteem,and Irrational Beliefs

Assumptions associated with Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) suggest that self-compassion, but not self-esteem, should be incompatible with irrational beliefs and with the emotional disturbances that they produce. In this study, 184 university students responded to a self-compassion scale along with measures of irrational beliefs, self-esteem, depression, and anxiety. As expected, self-compassion correlated negatively with irrationality, predicted better mental health, and explained inverse connections of self-esteem with irrational beliefs. In support of REBT, the irrationality of low frustration tolerance also partially mediated the inverse self-compassion relationship with anxiety. Other findings for self-esteem and for the irrational belief of self-worth, nevertheless, suggested complexities for the REBT conceptual framework. These data most importantly confirmed self-compassion as part of what REBT would describe as an effective personal philosophy.     

Evaluation of a comprehensive inpatient rational-emotive therapy program: Some preliminary data

Mental health practitioners are faced with a profound challenge surrounding the prevalence of adult mental disorders, the need for inpatient treatment programs, and the costs of such programs. This paper describes the development of an adult inpatient psychiatric program based on Rational-Emotive Therapy. Specific elements of this program are described briefly, and preliminary outcome data presented on 372 patients. Concerns and future directions are also discussed. Development of adult inpatient psychiatric programs based on Rational-Emotive Therapy would appear to be one method of providing effective and cost-efficient treatment within the current cost-containment atmosphere of psychiatric treatment.Dr. Nottingham is an Associate Fellow and Approved Supervisor of the Institute for Rational-Emotive Therapy. He is in independent practice with Germantown Psychological Associates, P.C. and is Director of Psychology at Parkwood Hospital, Olive Branch, MS. Dr. Neimeyer is an Associate Professor and Director of Clinical Training in the Department of Psychology of Memphis State University. He has written extensively in the areas of cognitive and constructivist psychotherapy, and is co-editor of the International Journal of Personal Construct Psychology.The authors would like to thank Kat Bagley, Joe Grillo, Ivey Bright, Brooke Bensen, Cathy Michas, Brad Barris, Lori Passmore, David Wilkins, and Dee Conrad for their help with data collection. Additionally, without the assistance and support of the Parkwood Hospital administration and staff, neither this treatment program nor this paper could have been developed.Portions of this paper based on earlier data analyses were presented at the Mississippi Psychological Association Convention, September, 1990. This research was conducted at Parkwood Hospital.     

Reductions in type a behavior,anxiety, anger,and physical illness as related to changes in irrational beliefs: Results of a demonstration project in industry

A series of stress management workshops was conducted in a Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET) format for an entire department in a large corporation (N=49). The population was rather general, i.e., nonstudent, nonclinical, and nonvolunteer. Measures were obtained before the program began and three to four months following completion on the dependent variables of Type A behavior, anxiety, anger, depression, assertiveness, and physical illness symptoms, and on the cognitive independent variables of irrational beliefs. Major changes were obtained on all dependent measures supporting previous work on the usefulness of an RET approach in reducing various types of distress. Further, these changes were shown to be strongly related to changes in irrational beliefs and changing such irrational beliefs was the major focus of the program. It is concluded, therefore, that a fundamental assumption of Rational-Emotive Therapy and theory is given additional empirical support.Paul J. Woods, Ph.D., co-editor of this Journal, is an associate fellow and an RET training supervisor of the Institute for Rational-Emotive Therapy     

A Rational-Emotive Treatment program with conduct disorder and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder adolescents

This study investigated the effects of a 12-week treatment program, based on Rational-Emotive Therapy, with conduct disorder (CD) and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) adolescents. Two independent homogeneous CD (N=12) and ADHD (N=12) groups were selected on the basis of the DSM-111-R and use of methylphenidate. The dependent variables were irrational thinking, depression, and anger. Lecture, discussion, and theYou Can Do It!Motivational Program video were used in the treatment intervention. Discriminant function analysis of pretest scores revealed that 96% of the students were correctly classified (CD=100%, ADHD=92%). Multivariate analysis of pre-posttest scores revealed that the CD group significantly changed on all dependent variables, while no significant differences were found with the ADHD group. A comparison of posttest scores on the measure of irrational thinking revealed that the CD group accepted responsibility for their upsetness and were more willing to change than the ADHD group. The results of the study are interpreted in terms of the distinguishing characteristics of each group.G. Barry Morris Ph.D., is Director of the Canadian Institute for Rational-Emotive Therapy. He is a Fellow and training supervisor in Rational-Emotive Therapy, a professor at the University of Saskatchewan, a licensed psychologist, and is engaged in private practice.     

Cognitive variables related to suicidal contemplation in adolescents with implications for long-range prevention

In a series of studies with college and high school students (Total N=808) consistent and strong relationships were found between suicidal contemplation and the irrational beliefs considered by Rational-Emotive Theory & Therapy (RET) to underlie emotional distress. Suicidal contemplation was measured first by an item from the Beck Depression Inventory and subsequently by the Suicide Probability Scale. Irrational beliefs were measured by the Jones Irrational Beliefs Test and, in the third study, by the new Attitudes & Belief Scale-II as well. Groups formed on the basis of increasing indices of suicidal contemplation were found to be consistently, increasingly more irrational on both measures. Also groups created according to low, medium, and high levels of irrational beliefs (the B in RET) were found to be markedly different on C variables such as anxiety, depression, hopelessness, anger, psychosomoatic symptoms and suicidal contemplation. The findings were interpreted as strongly inferring a causational relationship from attitudes and beliefs to emotional distress and the contemplation of suicide. The implications of the findings for RET theory and for therapeutic and preventive strategies related to emotional distress and suicidal contemplation are clear. Other approaches to the explanation of suicide are cited and reference is made to a previous critical summary of them (Woods & Muller, 1988).Paul J. Woods, Ph.D., Co-Editor of this Journal, is a Fellow of the Institute for Rational-Emotive Therapy in New York City, a Professor of Psychology at Hollins College, and a Licensed Psychologist in independent practice in Roanoke, Virginia.Ellen S. Silverman, R. N., C. & M.A. collaborated in Study III for a Master's thesis at Hollins College. She is currently in a Ph.D. program in psychology at Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University.Julia M. Gentilini, B. A. collaborated on Study I for an Honors' thesis in psychology at Hollins College.Deborah K. Cunningham, M. A. collaborated on Study II for a Master's thesis at Hollins College. She is currently in a Ph.D. program in psychology at the University of Memphis.Russell M. Grieger, Ph.D., Co-Editor of this Journal, is a Licensed Clinical Psychologist in independent practice in Charlottesville, Virginia, and a Fellow of the Institute for Rational-Emotive Therapy in New York City.     

Irrational Beliefs, Interpersonal Perception and Marital Adjustment

To test the hypothesis that the major evaluative beliefs postulated by Rational-Emotive Behaviour Therapy are related to marital adjustment, 50 married couples completed the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS) and the Survey of Personal Beliefs (SPB). Significant correlations were found between DAS scores and three subscales (Other directed shoulds, Low frustration tolerance and Self worth) of the SPB. On the interpersonal dimension of assumed similarity, females in the high dyadic adjustment group were better able to predict their spouses' awfulizing, low frustration tolerance and self-worth beliefs than were females in the low adjustment group. However, the present study offers only limited support for the hypothesis that interpersonal perception of irrational evaluative beliefs is related to marital adjustment.     

Irrationality profiles for anger and anxiety

A fundamental position in Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET) is that irrational belief systems cause emotional disturbance. This study adds to the body of recent research substantiating this position by showing significantly different profiles on the Jones Irrational Beliefs Test (IBT) (1968/1969) for a nonclinical population (N=446) differentiated according to low, medium, and high anxiety and low, medium, and high anger. The profile differences not only support the above fundamental position, but also offer some further evidence for the validity of the IBT.Paul J. Woods, Ph.D., co-editor of this journal, is an associate fellow of the Institute for Rational-Emotive Therapy, a professor of psychology at Hollins College, and is engaged in private practice in Roanoke, Virginia.Samuel K. Coggin is completing his Master's work at Hollins College and is employed as a psychologist at the Central Virginia Training Center, Lynchburg, Virginia.     

Psychometric Analysis and Tentative Shortening of Survey of Personal Beliefs

The Survey of Personal Beliefs (SPB) is a frequently used measure of irrational beliefs, but can display less than ideal psychometric properties. In the first study of the present project, the five subscales of the SPB correlated as expected with higher levels of perfectionism, shame, and guilt. A confirmatory factor analysis, nevertheless, revealed that these subscales did not adequately describe responding on the SPB, and internal reliability for some subscales was poor. An abbreviated 12-item version of the SPB was more reliable than the subscales and generally as valid as the full 50-item instrument. With a second data set, the shortened version of the SPB was more consistent than the full 50-item scale in correlating positively with at least some measures of maladjustment that included depression, anxiety, neuroticism, and alexithymia. Future researchers may want to utilize the shorter 12-item version of the SPB as a more convenient and psychometrically acceptable measure of irrational beliefs.     

Alexithymia, Irrational Beliefs, and the Rational-Emotive Explanation of Emotional Disturbance

In recent discussions of Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), Ellis has argued that unconscious processes supplement irrational beliefs in explaining psychopathology. The hypothesis of this investigation was that these unconscious processes reflect alexithymia. University students responded to the three factors from the Toronto Alexithymia Scale, the Malouff and Schutte Belief Scale (MSBS), 5 subscales from the Survey of Personal Beliefs, and instruments recording depression, anxiety, and neuroticism. As hypothesized, alexithymia and irrational beliefs predicted greater emotional disturbance while also displaying some small positive correlations with each other. In multiple regressions, both types of variables combined to predict emotional disturbance, with alexithymia explaining the greater amount of variance. Alexithymic difficulties in identifying emotions had uniquely negative mental health implications. The MSBS and the Low Frustration Tolerance subscale were the most noteworthy measures of a pathogenic irrationality. These data supported the claim that the unconscious processes of REBT could be conceptualized in terms of alexithymia.     

Clinical models in RET: An advanced model of the organization of emotional and behavioural disorders

Based on Albert Ellis' original ABC model and Richard Wessler's 8-step model, a new model of emotional disturbances is described. The new model attempts to express graphically some important principles of RET theory as well as its recent advancements and innovations. The clinical usefulness of the model, both in the assessment process and in planning therapeutic interventions, is discussed with particular attention to secondary symptoms of emotional disturbances.Cesare DeSilvestri, M.D., is an associate fellow and RET training supervisor of the Institute for Rational-Emotive Therapy, Executive Director and Director of Training of the Institute for Rational-Emotive Therapy (Italy), a guest-professor of clinical psychiatry at the Institute of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, State University of Rome, Italy, and is engaged in private practice in Rome and Milano, Italy.     

Sex role identification and young women's irrational beliefs

The present study was designed to examine the relationship between young women's beliefs about approval, frustration, and dependency and their sex-role identification. Sixty-six college women responded to a questionnaire which contained the Irrational Beliefs Test (Jones, 1969) and the Multidimensional Sex Role Inventory (MSRI; Bernard, 1981). As predicted, women who score high in irrational beliefs concerning approval, frustration, and dependency also scored higher on the MSRI scale pertaining to anxiety and neuroticism than did their more rational counterparts. Also, the high irrational group scored lower than did the low irrational group on the MSRI scale measuring instrumental-agentic traits. These results have two implications for feminist RET psychotherapists. First, they clarify the value of using instruments to assess both irrational beliefs and sex role identification in treatment planning. Secondly, they sensitize the psychotherapist to the impact of sex-role socialization and identification on the psychological adjustment of young women.This article is based in part on a master's thesis completed by Tracy L. Vining, M.A.The authors thank William Tooke, Ph.D., for his helpful advice.Tracy L. Vining, M.A., is a School Psychologist at the Wayne Finger Lakes BOCES in Rushville, N.Y. William P. Gaeddert, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor in the Psychology Department at SUNY-Plattsburgh, and Naomi B. McCormick is a Professor in the Psychology Department at SUNY-Plattsburgh and a Fellow of the Institute for Rational-Emotive Therapy.     

Relationships Between Dysfunctional Beliefs and Positive and Negative Indices of Well-Being: A Critical Evaluation of the Common Beliefs Survey-III

The Common Beliefs Survey-III is a factored measure of dysfunctional beliefs and has generally shown satisfactory convergent validity and test–retest reliability [(2001) Journal of Rational-Emotive and Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 19(2), 89–103). We sought to further establish the utility of the measure by examining the extent the dysfunctional belief subscales related to a wide variety of positive and negative indices of well-being, after controlling for a potential confound, namely, social desirability. Four hundred and fifty-seven university students completed questionnaires that assessed six dimensions of dysfunctional belief, seven negative indices of well-being (depression, anxiety, stress, guilt, hostility, hopelessness, suicidal thinking), three positive indices of well-being (life satisfaction, joviality, state self-assurance), and social desirability. Analyses revealed that lower well-being was associated with (1) beliefs that self-worth is dependent on success, (2) beliefs that self-worth is dependent on approval, (3) demanding beliefs that reflect unrealistically high expectations for events and individuals. Belief variables predicted 14% of the variance in the negative indices but only 7.3% in the positive indices. Stepwise regression revealed that the optimal set of belief predictors depended on the type of well-being predicted. These findings have implications for both theory and practice.     

A dictionary of rational-emotive feelings and behaviors

Rational-emotive therapy (RET) hypothesizes that people mainly make themselves emotionally disturbed and dysfunctional in their behavior by starting with rational Beliefs (rBs) about their Goals (G) and then by consciously or unconsciously converting these into irrational Beliefs (iBs) or dogmatic, absolutistic musts and commands. To help clients and others to clearly see the differences between their rational Beliefs and their irrational Beliefs, to understand the disordered feelings and behaviors to which the latter lead, and to help them become more rational, less disturbed, and less dysfunctional in their activities, the authors have constructed and herewith present a dictionary of rational-emotive equivalents.Ted Crawford is a Consultant on Communication and Group Processes in Santa Barbara, California. Albert Ellis, Ph.D., is the Executive Director of the Institute for Rational-Emotive Therapy in New York City.     

Irrational/Rational Beliefs,Procrastination, and Life Satisfaction: An Empirical Assessment of REBT Models of Psychological Distress and Psychological Health Model

Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy - The current cross-sectional study investigates the relationships between irrational/rational beliefs, procrastination, and life...     

The Relationship Between Automatic Thoughts and Irrational Beliefs Predicting Anxiety and Depression

Cognitive behavioral approaches differ in their views on core cognitions and their hypothesized role in the etiology of depression and anxiety. The present study provides empirical evidence regarding the relationship between irrational beliefs and components of automatic thoughts and their role in the etiology of depression and anxiety. The present study utilized newer and improved questionnaires to assess components of irrational belief. Based on prior research by Safren et al. (Cogn Ther Res 24(3):327–344, 2000), a three-factor structure of the combined automatic thought questionnaires were utilized to measure components of automatic thoughts as they relate to depression and anxiety. Factor analytical methods were utilized to confirm the factor structure of the irrational beliefs and automatic thoughts components. Advanced path modeling was utilized to model the relationship between irrational beliefs and automatic thoughts in predicting anxiety and depression. The study used a sample of N = 542 undergraduate psychology students during stressful exam times. Results indicated that the irrational belief Demandingness represents a primary factor, followed by the secondary irrational beliefs as proposed by Rational Emotive Behavioral Theory. Selfdowning beliefs were fully mediated by depressive automatic thoughts in the case of depressive affect. Low frustration tolerance contributed unique variance to anxious and depressive affect that was not fully mediated by automatic thoughts. Results from the present study add empirical evidence that irrational beliefs indeed represent core and intermediary beliefs that lead to specific automatic thoughts, which is congruent with cognitive behavioral theory as proposed by Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy.     

A study of “Belief” and “Non-belief” items from the jones irrational beliefs test with implications for the theory of RET

Evidence supporting the fundamental position of Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET) that dysfunctional emotions and behaviors are heavily influenced by irrational beliefs has been questioned due to the fact that many measures of beliefs contain items that actually refer to emotions and behaviors. In this study individual items on the Jones Irrational Beliefs Test (IBT) (Jones, 1968/69) were rated by a panel of experts in RET as to whether they referred to beliefs, behaviors, emotions, or were ambiguous. Then Belief items and Non-belief items from the responses of 368 participants were extracted and scored separately. The Non-belief scores, based on items mostly referring to emotions and behaviors, were strongly related to measures of distress, as would be expected. But scores based on items unequivocally referring to beliefs were also significantly related to measures of emotional distress, psychosomatic symptoms, and suicidal contemplation. These findings are interpreted as clear support for RET's position on the relationship between irrational beliefs (B's) and dysfunctional emotions and behaviors (C's).Co-Editor of thisJournal, is a Fellow of the Institute for Rational-Emotive Therapy in New York City, a Professor of Psychology at Hollins College, and a Licensed Psychologist in independent practice in Roanoke, Virginia.     

Positive Irrational Beliefs and Mental Health

Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy - This study examined the relationship between positive irrational beliefs, or positive illusions, and mental health. It attempted to...     

Irrational and Metacognitive Beliefs Mediate the Relationship Between Content Beliefs and GAD Symptoms: A Study on a Normal Population

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) and Metacognitive Therapy (MCT) models show both similarities and differences in conceptualizing anxiety. This work assumes that REBT’s irrational and MCT’s metacognitive beliefs play a mediation role while CBT’s disorder specific content beliefs act as triggers. This hypothesis is tested using a regression model in which metacognitive and irrational beliefs play a mediation role while content disorder beliefs are independent variables. This paper applied this model to generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), a psychiatric diagnosis in which anxiety is the major feature. In GAD, the specific content beliefs are negative problem orientation and intolerance of uncertainty. Therefore, 149 non clinical subjects completed 4 self-report questionnaires: the Negative Orientation to the Problems Questionnaire and the Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale as measures for content cognitive beliefs, the Attitudes and Beliefs Scale for irrational beliefs, and the Metacognitive Questionnaire 30 Items Version for metacognitive beliefs. The generalized anxiety disorder questionnaire was chosen in order to measure anxiety as dependent variable. Regression analyses confirmed that irrational and metacognitive beliefs mediate the relation between cognitive content beliefs and GAD. We clinically interpret mediation as a second level regulation.