Employable,committed, and thus well-performing: a matter of interdependent forward-looking social exchange

This study probes the relationship between perceived external employability (i.e., the individual’s perception of available jobs on the external labour market) and affective commitment and performance within the framework of social exchange. An innovative feature is that we advance perceived external employability as a commodity of interdependent forward-looking exchange: employees who perceive themselves as externally employable anticipate successful exchange, which drives further responses, both relational (i.e., affective organizational commitment) and behavioural (i.e., performance). Strong features of this study are that we include (a) both the organization and the workgroup as foci of affective commitment, and (b) task, helping, and counterproductive behaviour as indicators of performance. Results from cross-lagged, structural equation modelling (SEM) analyses on two-wave survey data (N = 458 Belgian employees) largely align with our idea: perceived external employability has a positive cross-lagged effect on affective organizational and workgroup commitment. The two foci of commitment in turn have a cross-lagged effect on performance, positive in the case of helping behaviour and negative in the case of counterproductive behaviour. No significant cross-lagged effects were found in relation to task behaviour. We discuss these results in the light of Social Exchange Theory and potential routes for future research.     

Organization-, supervisor-, and workgroup-directed commitments and citizenship behaviours: A comparison of models

The purpose of this study was to test two competing theoretical models explaining the relationships between affective commitment to the organization, the supervisor, and the workgroup, and organizational citizenship behaviours (OCB) specifically directed toward these foci. Drawing on cohesion theory, the first model stated that commitment to the organization is a key mediating variable intervening between “local” commitments and OCB (Hunt & Morgan, 1994). Building on Lewin's (1943) field theory and the notion of psychological proximity, the second model proposed that commitment to the most proximal focus should mediate the effect of commitment to more distal entities on OCB. Data drawn from a sample of blue-collar workers and their supervisors in an iron and steel company indicated that the model of a proximal mediation best represented the relationships between commitments and OCB.     

Testing a Moderated Mediational Model of Workgroup Incivility: The Roles of Organizational Trust and Group Regard

The purpose of this study was to examine organizational trust as a mediator of the relationship between workgroup incivility and work outcomes, and whether workgroup regard moderates this mediation. Participants included 90 (61% female, 79% White) employees of a property‐management company who completed measures of workgroup incivility, group regard, organizational trust, job satisfaction, turnover intention, and job burnout. The results showed that trust mediated the relationship between incivility and all 3 work outcomes, and that regard for the workgroup moderated this process. Employees with lower group regard reported less organizational trust when they experienced incivility within their workgroup; lower trust, in turn, related to lower job satisfaction, especially for those with low group regard. Implications for organizations are discussed.     

Felt and behavioral engagement in workgroups of professionals

This research proposes a two-dimensional measure of engagement for professionals in technically-oriented workgroups. It examines the relationship of their engagement to five workgroup outcomes: innovation, performance, satisfaction with the organization, career success, and intentions to stay. Three studies are reported involving: (1) a random sample of 123 workgroups and 1351 self and reports by others of professionals employed by a Fortune 100 company, (2) a panel study of 1024 of the study one professionals four months later, and (3) the replication of results with 827 professionals across three cultures. The results support felt engagement and behavioral engagement as distinct constructs that can be measured by both a self-report and assessments by others of workgroup engagement. The relationship of engagement to workgroup innovation, performance, satisfaction with the organization, career success, and intentions to stay generalized across four countries and cultures: U.S./North America, The Netherlands/Europe, Argentina, and India. Felt engagement was the best predictor of affective outcomes and intentions to stay when all variables were measured concurrently. Behavioral engagement was the best predictor of workgroup performance concurrently and over time. This research indicates that the two dimensions of engagement are important aspects of vocational adjustment for the success of professionals in technically-oriented workgroups. Implications for future research are to consider multiple dimensions of engagement, clearly define the population and setting for engagement, and to study engagement as a dynamic experience that warrants ongoing management and workgroup attention.     

CHALLENGE‐ORIENTED ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIORS AND ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS: DO CHALLENGE‐ORIENTED BEHAVIORS REALLY HAVE AN IMPACT ON THE ORGANIZATION'S BOTTOM LINE?

Virtually all of the studies that have examined the relationship between organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) and unit or organizational effectiveness have focused on affiliation‐oriented as opposed to challenge‐oriented forms of OCB, and no study has examined the mechanisms through which OCBs influence unit or organizational effectiveness. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to examine the main and interactive effects that challenge‐oriented and affiliation‐oriented OCBs have on organizational effectiveness through their impact on workgroup task performance. Results from a sample of 150 limited‐menu restaurants showed that the relationship between challenge‐oriented OCBs and workgroup task performance has an inverted‐U shape and is moderated by affiliation‐oriented OCBs, and that workgroup task performance completely mediated the impact of challenge‐ and affiliation‐oriented OCBs (and their interaction) on organizational outcomes (i.e., sales dollars, profit as a percentage of sales, and employee turnover). Specifically, the findings showed that challenge‐oriented OCBs have a positive impact on workgroup task performance up to a point, and beyond that point only when certain enabling conditions (i.e., high levels of affiliation‐oriented OCBs) are present. Implications are discussed.     

Felt and behavioral engagement in workgroups of professionals

This research proposes a two-dimensional measure of engagement for professionals in technically-oriented workgroups. It examines the relationship of their engagement to five workgroup outcomes: innovation, performance, satisfaction with the organization, career success, and intentions to stay. Three studies are reported involving: (1) a random sample of 123 workgroups and 1351 self and reports by others of professionals employed by a Fortune 100 company, (2) a panel study of 1024 of the study one professionals four months later, and (3) the replication of results with 827 professionals across three cultures. The results support felt engagement and behavioral engagement as distinct constructs that can be measured by both a self-report and assessments by others of workgroup engagement. The relationship of engagement to workgroup innovation, performance, satisfaction with the organization, career success, and intentions to stay generalized across four countries and cultures: U.S./North America, The Netherlands/Europe, Argentina, and India. Felt engagement was the best predictor of affective outcomes and intentions to stay when all variables were measured concurrently. Behavioral engagement was the best predictor of workgroup performance concurrently and over time. This research indicates that the two dimensions of engagement are important aspects of vocational adjustment for the success of professionals in technically-oriented workgroups. Implications for future research are to consider multiple dimensions of engagement, clearly define the population and setting for engagement, and to study engagement as a dynamic experience that warrants ongoing management and workgroup attention.     

Use of Socially Dependent Bases of Power: French and Raven's Theory Applied to Workgroup Leadership1

This study examines how supervisors from three different organizations use social power in workgroups. A sample of 127 leaders completed a self-report questionnaire describing social influence attempts using a scale derived from French and Raven's (1959) five bases of social power. The results show no significant differences between organizations in use of the bases of social power. Referent and Expert powers were used significantly more frequently by these leaders than Legitimate, Reward, and Coercive powers. The number of subordinates supervised within the workgroup was significantly correlated with increased use of Coercive power by the workgroup leader. These results are discussed in terms of the potential for using socially dependent influence to explain leaders' direction of workgroup members.     

Multiple professional identities: examining differences in identification across work-related targets

Although there is a growing literature on organizational identification, relatively little research has investigated other possible targets of identification. In a sample of veterinarians working in a wide range of organizations, the authors compared their identification with the veterinary profession, their organization, and their workgroup. The authors found different patterns of identification across these targets depending on whether the individual (a) worked in a veterinary medicine or nonveterinary medicine organization and (b) was an owner/partner or an associate. Owners of veterinary medicine organizations identified more with the organization than with either the profession or their workgroup. Associates in veterinary medicine organizations identified more with the organization and the workgroup than with the profession. Veterinarians in nonveterinary medicine organizations identified more with the profession and their workgroup than with the organization. Identification with each of the targets provided independent predictive validity of job satisfaction.     

When Competition Turns Ugly: Collective Injustice,Workgroup Identification,and Counterproductive Work Behavior

This research investigated the effects of competition and injustice between workgroups and workgroup identification (self-categorization) on individuals' propensity to engage in counterproductive work behavior toward an opposing workgroup. One scenario study revealed that competition and collective injustice had an interactive effect on individuals' willingness to engage in counterproductive behavior. In another scenario study, this effect was moderated by the strength of self-categorization with the group. Finally, a survey study of 110 working adults involving reported counterproductive behavior showed a three-way interaction between competition, collective injustice, and the strength of identification with the workgroup, thus providing additional support for the findings of Study 2. This collection of studies provides initial evidence for the positive influence of intergroup competition under conditions of collective injustice on counterproductive behavior.     

Workgroup Temperance of Alcohol and Safety Climate Moderate the Cognitive Effects of Workplace Substance‐Abuse Prevention1

This research examined the independent and combined influence of workgroup drinking norms and safety climate on the cognitive outcomes of prevention. Employees from 72 workgroups (n = 347) were randomly assigned to attend 1 of 2 training conditions or a control group that did not receive training until after follow‐up questionnaires. Results from hierarchical regression analyses showed there was a significant effect of the interaction between safety climate, drinking norms, and training on beliefs that policy and the employee assistance program are effective. Informational training was least effective for employees from relatively temperate workgroups. Team awareness was less effective for employees from tolerant groups. Employees might benefit more from interventions tailored to individual and workgroup cultural factors.     

EMPLOYEE SILENCE ON CRITICAL WORK ISSUES: THE CROSS LEVEL EFFECTS OF PROCEDURAL JUSTICE CLIMATE

This study examined the cross-level effects of procedural justice climate on employee silence—that is, the intentional withholding of critical work-related information by employees from their workgroup members. In a survey-based study of 606 nurses nested within 30 workgroups, we found that procedural justice climate moderated the effects of individual-level antecedents of employee silence. Specifically, when procedural justice climate was higher, the effects of antecedents that inhibit employee silence (e.g., workgroup identification, professional commitment) were stronger. Implications for research and practice are discussed.     

The Role of Culture,Workgroup Membership,and Organizational Status on Cooperation and Trust: An Experimental Investigation

We examined how interactions among participants' cultural backgrounds (e.g., Australian vs. Singaporean) and multiple subgroups (e.g., cultural group membership, workgroup membership, organizational status) affect trust and cooperation in the workplace. University students (120 Australians, 120 Singaporeans) responded to hypothetical scenarios of cooperation and trust in the workplace. The results indicated that, for both Australians and Singaporeans, trust and cooperation were more strongly influenced by workgroup membership and organizational status than by cultural group membership. Participants trusted and cooperated more with work in‐group members than with work out‐group members, and trusted and cooperated more with superiors than with peers. Theoretical implications are discussed.     

Do Satisfied Employees Satisfy Customers? Support‐Services Staff Morale and Satisfaction Among Public School Administrators,Students, and Parents

Data were obtained from school staff ( N = 1,567) who provided support services to schools in a major metropolitan school district. These data were analyzed in relation to data obtained from 3 customer groups (school administrators, students, and parents) who provided ratings of their satisfaction with services. Several aspects of employee morale (e. g., quality of supervision, teamwork, and goal clarity, along with workgroup service climate) were significantly and positively related to administrator and parent satisfaction, but not to student satisfaction. Relations of employee morale and workgroup service climate to administrator satisfaction and parent satisfaction were moderated by customer contact with employees. Results are discussed in relation to expectations of customers and employees that affect the nature of the service-exchange interaction.     

Reducing the performance-cue bias in work behavior ratings: can groups help?

The authors examined whether the performance-cue bias can be reduced by relying on groups as raters. Study participants (N = 333) were provided with feedback regarding the performance of a workgroup and, after observing the group, assigned to an individual or group rater condition to complete a behavioral rating instrument. Results revealed that when provided with positive (vs. negative) feedback, individuals attributed more effective and fewer ineffective behaviors to the workgroup; however, group ratings were unaffected by the feedback. In addition, feedback biased the decision criteria and false alarm rates of individuals but not of groups. Discussion of when groups may attenuate versus amplify bias in performance appraisal judgments emphasizes 2 key elements-bias magnitude and task perception.     

Individual differences: Factors affecting employee utilization of flexible work arrangements

This study investigated individual and organizational factors that predict an individual’s choice to use flexible work arrangements (FWAs). Survey data was collected from 144 employees in two different organizations. The results revealed several significant predictors of FWAs: tenure, hours worked per week, supervisory responsibilities, perceptions of workgroup use and personal lifestyle. Individuals with longer tenure in the organization, who had supervisory responsibilities, had coworkers in their immediate workgroup who used FWAs or had personal lifestyle preferences were more likely to use the programs than those with less tenure, who did not have supervisory responsibilities, did not perceive their workgroup used FWAs or did not have personal lifestyle preferences.     

Assessing Workgroup Norms for Civility: The Development of the Civility Norms Questionnaire-Brief

Purpose

This research describes the development and validation of the Civility Norms Questionnaire-Brief (CNQ-B), a 4-item measure designed to assess workgroup climate for civility. Climate for civility is defined as employee perceptions of norms supporting respectful treatment among workgroup members.

Design/Methodology/Approach

Five samples (N?=?2,711) of adult employees, including two from distinct organizations and three from multiple organizations, responded to the CNQ-B and additional measures.

Findings

Evidence for the internal consistency, and convergent and discriminant validity of the CNQ-B was observed. Additionally, evidence for the criterion-related and incremental validity of the CNQ-B was demonstrated as it was a significant predictor of later-assessed incivility experiences and accounted for significant variability in work attitudes beyond incivility experiences and related measures.

Implications

The CNQ-B is a psychometrically sound instrument despite being composed of only four items. The CNQ-B can be used by researchers and practitioners alike to assess climate for civility, to study climate for civility as a precursor to incivility experiences, and to target workgroups that could benefit from interventions (e.g., training) to enhance civility and reduce incivility.

Originality/Value

This is one of the first studies to conduct a rigorous psychometric assessment of a measure of workgroup climate for civility that is grounded in theory and research on workplace civility and incivility. At four items, the CNQ-B is the shortest assessment tool currently available that is designed for this purpose.     

Do Temporary Workers Always Lower Workgroup Effectiveness? The Moderating Effect of Job Similarity in Blended Workgroups

Workgroups containing both permanent and temporary workers are often referred to as being ‘blended’. There exists a general view in the literature that workgroups blended in this way function less well with greater rather than fewer temporary workers. However, this notion has received little direct testing. Drawing on social identity theory and the input-process-output model of group effectiveness, this study examines the performance of 131 workgroups containing varying proportions of temporary agency workers, along with the proposed group processes: distributive justice climates reported by permanent and temporary workers and altruistic behaviors from permanent to temporary workers and vice versa. We find that blended workgroups with a greater proportion of temporary workers do not exhibit poorer justice climates, altruism, or performance; the hypothesized negative effects only emerge when jobs performed by temporary and permanent workers within the workgroup are highly similar. Counter to expectations, a positive indirect effect between proportion of temporary workers to workgroup performance via altruism from permanent to temporary workers was found when job similarity is low. Theoretical and practical implications are considered, focusing on the importance of managing social identity threat in blended workgroups.     

Patterns of stability in adult attachment: an empirical test of two models of continuity and change

One of the core assumptions of attachment theory is that attachment representations are stable over time. Unfortunately, the data on attachment stability have been ambiguous, and as a result, alternative theoretical perspectives have evolved to explain them. The objective of the present research was to evaluate alternative models of stability by studying adults in 2 intensive longitudinal investigations. Specifically, we assessed attachment representations in 1 sample (N = 203) daily over a 30-day period and in the other sample (N = 388) weekly over a year. Analyses show that the patterns of stability that exist in adult attachment are most consistent with a prototype model--a model assuming that there is a stable factor underlying temporary variations in attachment. Moreover, although the Big Five personality traits exhibited a pattern of stability that was similar to that of attachment, they did not account for the stability observed in attachment.     

Two Dimensions of Attachment to God and Their Relation to Affect, Religiosity, and Personality Constructs

In this study we sought to address several limitations of previous research on attachment theory and religion by (1) developing a dimensional attachment to God scale, and (2) demonstrating that dimensions of attachment to God are predictive of measures of affect and personality after controlling for social desirability and other related dimensions of religiosity. Questionnaire measures of these constructs were completed by a sample of university students and community adults (total n = 374). Consistent with prior research on adult romantic attachment, two dimensions of attachment to God were identified: avoidance and anxiety . After statistically controlling for social desirability, intrinsic religiousness, doctrinal orthodoxy, and loving God image, anxious attachment to God remained a significant predictor of neuroticism , negative affect , and (inversely) positive affect ; avoidant attachment to God remained a significant inverse predictor of religious symbolic immortality and agreeableness . These findings are evidence that correlations between attachment to God and measures of personality and affect are not merely byproducts of confounding effects of socially desirable responding or other dimensions of religiosity.