A DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS OF MMPI ITEMS

A method of analysis specifically designed for binary data was applied to 100 MMPI items. Sixty, items were carefully chosen to represent the nine major clinical scales with respect to direction of keying, social desirability scale value and endorsement frequency. The remaining 40 items were randomly chosen from items not appearing on any of these scales. Although a complete solution was obtained in five dimensions, only three were retained. The three dimensions were related to scale membership, gender of the respondent and various item characteristics. The results clearly support the two major MMPI factors obtained on a scale level and additionally show a strong gender dimension.     

The predictive validity of subtle and obvious empirically derived psychological test items under faking conditions

The relative contributions of subtle and obvious item endorsements to the prediction of a relevant criterion were assessed under faking and control ("honest") conditions. The MMPI and a nonconformity questionnaire were first administered to 100 male college students. Items on the Pd scale and 101 additional MMPI items that correlated significantly with the nonconformity questionnaire were then rated by 38 other male college students for apparent relationship to psychopathology. From these ratings, a scale (designated PdX) was constructed, which consisted of 21 subtle and 21 obvious items. After a third group of 98 male college students completed the nonconformity questionnaire, they were asked to respond to the items of the Pd and PdX subscales under control, fake-good, and fake-bad instructions. Significant correlations between the nonconformity scale and certain PdX and Pd subscales were found only for the control group. Implications for test construction and for clinical interpretation under faking conditions are discussed.     

Factorial analysis of the MMPI profiles of low back pain patients

To examine the interrelationships of MMPI scale scores among low back pain patients, 50 profiles were scored on the traditional 13 scales, Hanvik's Lb scale and seven subscales derived from Scales 1 and 3. The profiles were randomly divided into two equal samples and factor analyzed. Comparison of the two samples yielded three common factors. The first factor measured severity of the symptoms, the second assessed the level of anger and aggression and the third assessed the psychogenic components of the syndrome. The implications of the factors are discussed.     

Aggressive response sets and subtle-obvious MMPI scale distinctions in male offenders

The effects of aggressive and nonaggressive response sets on the MMPI subtle and obvious clinical subscales were investigated. Fifty-eight male prison inmates answered the MMPI as if they were either highly aggressive or highly nonaggressive. The clinical scales with sufficient items in each category were scored for subtle, neutral, and obvious subscales. Inmates successfully feigned aggressiveness on several of the obvious subscales (p = .0056) and one neutral scale; the subtle subscales were not significantly different across groups, consistent with previous research on this population in terms of the resistance of subtle items to these response sets.     

Individual differences in hedonic capacity

Hedonic capacity--an individuals ability to experience pleasurable affect--is important, not Only in accounting for the development of psychopathology but in understanding normal personality as well. In this article, the development and validation of three scales of hedonic capacity are described. One scale consists of MMPI items, a second consists of CPI items, and the third combines items from both inventories. These scales demonstrated acceptable internal consistency and test-retest reliability. Initial support for the construct validity of the scales was also obtained. Because they have been constructed from the MMPI and CPI, the scales described in this article can be used to address important questions in research on schizophrenia, depression, and normal personality with a wide variety of data that has already been collected.     

Psychometric characteristics of the MMPI-2 Cook-Medley Hostility scale

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI; Hathaway & McKinley, 1943) Cook-Medley Hostility scale (Ho) has been studied a great deal because of its relation to coronary disease and mortality. However, little research has been conducted with the Ho scale on the revised MMPI (MMPI-2; Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989). This study examined the psychometric characteristics of the MMPI-2 Ho scale. Only nine of the original 50 Ho items were slightly changed in the revision. Ho scores were highly correlated with MMPI-2 scales CYN, K, TPA, and ASP, supporting the interpretation of Ho as a measure of cynicism. High correlations with other MMPI-2 scales also suggested that Ho is related to general psychopathology and negative affectivity. Male Ho scorers were rated by their spouses as hotheaded, bossy, demanding, and argumentative. For women, Ho scale scores were less strongly associated with ratings of overt hostility. Principal components analysis of Ho revealed four underlying dimensions: Cynicism, Hypersensitivity, Aggressive Responding, and Social Avoidance.     

A Latent Trait Analysis of the MMPI

Commonly used techniques for analyzing the structure of the MMPI scales were discussed and the use of a latent trait model was suggested as an alternative. The items on each scale of the MMPI were calibrated using a discrimination statistic. The item calibration statistics obtained from a replication sample were highly correlated with those obtained in the first sample. Poor fitting items were identified, and possible reasons for poor fits were discussed. The scales generally had few poor fits. The poor fitting items were generally those identified by Wiener (1956) as comprising the "subtle" subscales of the test.     

The use of subtle items in detecting deception

When subjects attempt to fake psychopathology on the MMPI, scores on subtle subscales tend to be lower than those of nonfaking subjects. Our study hypothesized that this paradox comes about because the subtle subscales have no predictive validity, but their face validity for psychopathology is the opposite of the keyed direction for psychopathology. Subjects who attempt to fake psychopathology do so on the basis of item content and thus achieve lower rather than higher scores. Three groups of 80 undergraduates took the MMPI under regular, faking-good, or faking-bad instructions. As expected, faking-bad subjects scored significantly lower than regular subjects on the 100 most subtle items, and this was due to their responses to those. 73 of the items whose face validity was misleading. The results are consistent with other work showing valid uses of subtle items in detecting deception.     

Comparative validity of the MMPI-2 Wiener-Harmon subtle-obvious scales in male prison inmates

The Wiener-Harmon subtle-obvious MMPI subscales (Wiener, 1948; Wiener & Harmon, 1946) have been the subject of considerable debate. In this study, we examined the intercorrelations among full clinical scale T scores and their subtle and obvious subscales in an offender population. Low subtle to full-scale correlations were observed, suggesting that these items contribute little to full-scale scores. Further, we explored the criterion validity of the MMPI-2 subtle-obvious scales in this forensic sample. The results demonstrated that the obvious scales of the MMPI-2 had greater criterion validity than the subtle scales when compared to crime history data. Scores on the subtle subscales were unrelated to crime history. The Ma-O subscale demonstrated the strongest association to crime history data. The findings from this study add to a mounting body of evidence indicating that when respondents are in a position to understand item content, and can therefore provide a direct self-appraisal, responses are most predictive of clinical criteria.     

Convergent validity of the Arabic scale of mental health

To estimate the convergent validity of the Arabic Scale of Mental Health, three convenience separate samples (ns = 162, 168, 138) of volunteer Kuwaiti college students, ages 19 to 32 years, responded anonymously to several scales measuring psychopathology. Analyses showed total ratings for the scale correlated negatively with those of the Kuwait University Anxiety Scale, Factorial Arabic Neuroticism Scale, Somatic Symptoms Inventory, Arabic Scale of Insomnia, the nine subscales of the Symptom Checklist-90-R, the Beck Depression Inventory, and the seven subscales of the General Health Questionnaire. Three separate correlation matrices were subjected to principal components analyses for which a single bipolar factor, Mental health versus psychopathology, was retained in all three matrices. Loadings for the Arabic Scale of Mental Health were -.76, -.64, and -.76. It was concluded that this scale has suitable convergent validity.     

Construct interpretation of Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) clinical scales: An orthogonal transformation

The implications for personality test construction of the revolution in testing caused by construct validity considerations are outlined, with particular relevance to the assessment of psychopathology. These include (a) substantive definition of constructs; (b) concern for internal consistency reliability as well as generalizability; (c) evaluation of structural relationships among items and scales; (d) suppression of response biases; (e) emphasis on minimum redundancy among scales; (f) evaluation of convergent and discriminant validity of scales and profiles; and (g) evaluation of criterion validity for configurations of scales and profiles, as well as single scales. Benefits are seen as accruing to an increased understanding of psychopathology and higher levels of validity. Prior, and subsequent, to the forthcoming revision of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), one approach to realizing some of the aims of construct measurement with an empirically based test is through an orthogonal transformation of the scales. Preliminary results for the extant MMPI clinical scales are reported, yielding evidence of (a) scale independence while retaining high correlations with uncorrected scales, (b) an appropriate pattern of correlations with a separate set of new scales of psychopathology, (c) a possible basis for new item analyses, and (d) freedom from correlations with a putative measure of response bias. Implications of the orthogonal transformation for profile interpretation are discussed.Portions of this paper were presnted at an invited address, 18th Annual Symposium on Recent Developments in the Use of the MMPI, Minneapolis, April 9, 1983. This paper was written while Douglas N. Jackson was distinguished visiting professor at the College of Education, The University of Iowa. This research has been supported by Research Grant 895-84/86 from the Ontario Mental Health Foundation, Research Grant 411-83-0014 from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, and the Alberta Hospital Edmonton.     

Assessing MMPI Constructs Through the Measurement of Response Latencies

Responses to the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) were assessed with respect to their relevance to schema theory. The relation between scores on self-reported personality dimensions and the speed of processing test items associated with each dimension was examined. With previously derived factor analytic content scales, negative correlations were obtained between scale scores and mean latencies for endorsing relevant items, and positive correlations were found between scale scores and mean latencies for rejecting relevant items. A similar analysis completed on the traditional clinical scales revealed no such pattern. Results were interpreted as supporting the conceptualization of item responding as a content-based, schema-relevant process.     

Assessing MMPI constructs through the measurement of response latencies

Responses to the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) were assessed with respect to their relevance to schema theory. The relation between scores on self-reported personality dimensions and the speed of processing test items associated with each dimension was examined. With previously derived factor analytic content scales, negative correlations were obtained between scale scores and mean latencies for endorsing relevant items, and positive correlations were found between scale scores and mean latencies for rejecting relevant items. A similar analysis completed on the traditional clinical scales revealed no such pattern. Results were interpreted as supporting the conceptualization of item responding as a content-based, schema-relevant process.     

Parent and child MMPI responses: Characteristics among families with adolescents in inpatient and outpatient settings

The relationship of parent personality to child psychopathology has been investigated in numerous MMPI studies over the past three decades. Very few of these studies, however, have directly analyzed MMPI response patterns of both parents and offspring. The current study included the MMPI responses of 199 families with adolescents entering inpatient and outpatient psychiatric setting (N = 542). Inpatient parents and adolescents had significantly higher mean scores across a variety of MMPI scales than did their outpatient counterparts. The linear combination of adolescent and maternal MMPI scale data, in a stepwise discriminative function analysis, resulted in accurate classification of 75% of all children in inpatient treatment and 74% of all children assigned to outpatient treatment. Findings were discussed in terms of salient MMPI differences between inpatient and outpatient families and shared psychopathological characteristics among family members with offspring in psychiatric treatment settings.     

MMPI predictors of mania among psychiatric inpatients

MMPI data from 64 patients with a diagnosis of manic-depressive illness, manic type, were compared with MMPI data from patients in two comparison groups--64 patients with a psychotic diagnosis other than manic-depressive illness, and 64 patients with a variety of psychiatric diagnoses. Manic patients had higher Ma scale scores for MMPI scales that assess personal distress and interpersonal difficulties (e.g., D and Si). Discriminant analysis, with the Ma, D, and Si scales as predictors, correctly classified as manic or not manic 82.5% of the patients in the derivation sample and 74.2% of the patients in the cross-validation sample. Two high-point pairs, Sc-Ma/Ma-Sc and Pa-Ma/Ma-Pa, occurred in the MMPI profiles of almost half of the manic patients but were rarely found among the profiles of other patients. The results of this study support the use of the MMPI in identifying manic patients, particularly when discriminating between mania and other types of psychosis.     

The Depressive Experiences Questionnaire: Validity and Psychological Correlates in a Clinical Samples

This study sought to compare the original and revised scoring systems of the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ) and to assess the construct validity of the Dependent and Self-critical subscales of the DEQ in a clinically depressed sample. Subjects were 103 depressed inpatients who completed the DEQ the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), the Hopelessness Scale, the Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire (ATQ), the Rathus Assertiveness Schedule (RAS), and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). The original and revised scoring systems of the DEQ evidenced good concurrent validity for each factor scale, but the revised system did not sufficiently discriminate dependent and self-critical dimensions. Using the original scoring system, self-criticism was significantly and positively related to severity of depression, whereas dependency was not, particularly for males. Factor analysis of the DEQ scales and the other scales used in this study supported the dependent and self-critical dimensions. For men, the correlation of the DEQ with the MMPI scales indicated that self-criticism was associated with psychotic symptoms, hostility/conflict, and a distress/exaggerated response set, whereas dependency did not correlate significantly with any MMPI scales. Females, however, did not exhibit a differential pattern of correlations between either the Dependency or the Self-criticism scales and the MMPI. These findings suggest possible gender differences in the clinical characteristics of male and female dependent and self-critical depressive subtypes.     

The Depressive Experiences Questionnaire: validity and psychological correlates in a clinical sample

This study sought to compare the original and revised scoring systems of the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ) and to assess the construct validity of the Dependent and Self-Critical subscales of the DEQ in a clinically depressed sample. Subjects were 103 depressed inpatients who completed the DEQ, the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), the Hopelessness Scale, the Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire (ATQ), the Rathus Assertiveness Schedule (RAS), and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). The original and revised scoring systems of the DEQ evidenced good concurrent validity for each factor scale, but the revised system did not sufficiently discriminate dependent and self-critical dimensions. Using the original scoring system, self-criticism was significantly and positively related to severity of depression, whereas dependency was not, particularly for males. Factor analysis of the DEQ scales and the other scales used in this study supported the dependent and self-critical dimensions. For men, the correlation of the DEQ with the MMPI scales indicated that self-criticism was associated with psychotic symptoms, hostility/conflict, and a distress/exaggerated response set, whereas dependency did not correlate significantly with any MMPI scales. Females, however, did not exhibit a differential pattern of correlations between either the Dependency or the Self-Criticism scales and the MMPI. These findings suggest possible gender differences in the clinical characteristics of male and female dependent and self-critical depressive subtypes.     

Vietnam Veterans: Overreporting Versus Acceptable Reporting of Symptoms

Overreporting of symptoms among Vietnam combat veterans is a problem area with little research. Five hundred thirty Vietnam-era veterans were given the MMPI. They were divided according to two criteria, combat status and reporting status. For combat status, subjects were either in Vietnam (in-country) or in the military but not in Vietnam (Vietnam-era) between 1964 and 1975. For reporting status, the MMPI overreporting criteria of the subtle-obvious (S-O) items given by Green (1986) were used. Overreporters had an S-O total of > 160, and acceptable subjects were at or below this figure. Also, all subjects who responded randomly were excluded (MMPI Test-Retest scales > 4). Results indicated that a high number of subjects randomly responded to the MMPI, and that in-country veterans met the overreporting criteria in greater numbers than the Vietnam-era group. Also, multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAs) showed significant differences among groups in four distinct areas—MMPI basic scales, Harris-Lingoes, Wiggins, and special subscales—for both reporting status and combat status, but not for the interaction. Post hoc analyses of variance (ANOVAs) showed that reporting status was especially robust. Two Vietnam in-country PTSD types, overreporters and "acceptable" patients, are discussed. Overreporters are more pathological and a distinct challenge in treatment relative to the other in-country veterans.     

Personality Inventory Responses of Males With Medically Intractable Seizures

The psychosocial adjustment of 50 male patients to intractable seizures was assessed by comparing their responses to a combined version of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality inventory (MMPI) and the California Psychological inventory (CPI) to the responses of 50 medical, psychiatric, or nonclinical controls who denied seizures. The two groups were significantly different (p < .01) on one MMPI and 10 CPI scales. Significant (p < .01) between-group differences were also rejected in 29 of the 704 personality inventory items. Those items were rationally clustered according to content into six conceptually, identifiable subscales; 30 additional items with similar content that were significant at the .05 level were added to those subscales. Comparison of subscale scores of an additional 30 seizure and 30 nonseizure subjects using analysis of variance revealed F values that reached statistical significance (p < .05) in four cases and approached significance (p = .07) in another. Applying coefficients derived from discriminant analysis of the first samples correctly classified 99% of the original patients, and 85% of the validation subjects. Results reveal a logical, understandable, and largely adaptive response to intractable seizures and offer little support for the concept of a dysfunctional or pathological interictal personality style.