Workaholism: definition, measurement, and preliminary results

Questionnaires were developed to assess the concept of workaholism, defined in terms of high scores on measures of work involvement and driveness and low scores on a measure of enjoyment of work, and to contrast this profile with work enthusiasm, defined as high work involvement and enjoyment and low driveness. Additional scales were devised to test several predictions about the correlates of workaholism. A test battery including these scales was given in a mail survey to a national sample of male (n = 134) and female (n = 157) social workers with academic positions. The psychometric properties of the scales are described. Cluster analyses for each sex revealed groups who corresponded to the workaholic and work enthusiast profiles as well as several other profiles. As predicted, workaholics were higher than work enthusiasts (among other groups) on measures of perfectionism, nondelegation of responsibility, and job stress. They were also higher on a measure of health complaints. Investigations are being initiated to determine the association of workaholism and other score profiles with objectively diagnosed cardiac disorders and with measures of occupational performance.     

Integrating psychological strengths under the umbrella of personality science: Rethinking the definition,measurement, and modification of strengths

ABSTRACT

Following the advent of modern positive psychology, there has been a surge of empirical research on strengths and a call for incorporating strengths into clinical models of psychopathology. In this review, we conceptualize strengths as a subset of personality traits and dissect the criteria used to define strengths. In hopes of improving theoretical models of strengths, we reconsider the personal choice to deploy strengths, the implications of strength use for well-being, and the costs of over-relying on particular strengths. As an illustration, we critically examine a new model of strengths with suggestions for defining, measuring, and developing interventions for strengths. These insights are offered to encourage critical examination of the conditions under which strengths best facilitate well-being.     

Academic and clinical education in fluency disorders: an update

This paper presents a survey of the academic and clinical education in fluency disorders provided by American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA)-accredited training programs. Respondents were 159 programs (out of 256, return rate = 67.4%) that completed a questionnaire seeking information about the courses and clinical experiences they require, the expertise of their faculty and supervisors, changes following the 1993 modification of training requirements for the ASHA certificate of clinical competence (CCC), and preliminary plans for changes in preparation for the 2005 standards. Results, which supplement findings from an earlier survey distributed in 1997 (Yaruss, 1999), indicated that nearly one-quarter of programs allow students to graduate without coursework in fluency disorders, and nearly two-thirds allow students to graduate without clinical practicum experiences. Findings suggest a trend toward fewer required classes taught by less experienced faculty, fewer clinical hours guided by less experienced supervisors, and a greater likelihood that students will graduate without any academic or clinical education in fluency disorders. Given the repeated finding that many speech-language pathologists are uncomfortable working with people who stutter, as well as ASHA's apparent de-emphasis of fluency disorders within the increasing scope of practice in the field of speech-language pathology, these results are a cause for concern about the future of fluency disorders. EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES: The reader will learn about (1) the coursework and clinical practicum experiences that are currently required for students in ASHA-accredited training programs; (2) trends indicating a reduction in training requirements for fluency disorders; and (3) ways of improving these requirements.     

Fluency,disfluency, dysfluency,and stuttering

The appropriate use of words, particularly certain words, is a persisting problem in the field of stuttering. This paper discusses some of the misuse involving four words basic to the field.     

On terms and procedures: Fluency

Fluency is a metaphor for flowing, effortless, well-practiced, and accurate performance. Current practice in fluency building involves increasing the frequency of free-operant performances. Free-operant performance is defined as continuous responding in the presence of discriminative stimuli that are either varied or not varied from response to response. Free-operant performance is also distinguished from discrete-trial performance. Frequency-building procedures are also described, including defining the learning channel and stimulus control topography of a component performance (called a pinpoint), selecting an appropriate timing period, and displaying stimuli so that no performance ceilings occur. During frequency building, frequencies of pinpoints are continuously charted on standard celeration charts. Frequencies are increased to empirically derived performance standards, or aims, that predict retention, endurance, stability, application, and adduction of performance. Frequency is also described as a dimension of performance, not simply its measurement. Frequency building is described as possibly facilitating contingency adduction.     

Aging,Encoding Fluency,and Metacognitive Monitoring

ABSTRACT

Encoding fluency (how rapidly one generates a mediator for a new association) may be a cue used to judge one's own learning. To evaluate age differences in utilization of this cue, older and younger adults were instructed to use interactive imagery to study paired associates, pressing a button to indicate when an image had been formed for a given pair. A judgment of learning (JOL) was also made immediately after each pair had been studied. Hence, at least two cues pertaining to encoding fluency—whether an image had been formed (a diagnostic cue) and the latency of formation (a nondiagnostic one)—were available when making JOLs. Age equivalence was found in JOL accuracy, and JOLs for both age groups were positively related to imagery formation and were negatively related to the latency of image formation. Moreover, subjectively judged latency correlated higher with JOLs than actual (objective) latency, supporting the hypothesis that perceived fluency is a cue used in constructing JOLs.     

Verbal fluency and the measurement of future-oriented goals and hopes: comparison of questionnaire and interview data

A total of 111 adolescents were asked about their future goals and hopes either in interviews or by questionnaire. Analysis showed that the total number of goals/hopes was influenced by the subjects' verbal fluency on the questionnaires but not in the interviews.     

Evaluative conditioning is pavlovian conditioning: issues of definition, measurement, and the theoretical importance of contingency awareness

In her commentary of Field (1999), Hammerl (1999) has drawn attention to several interesting points concerning the issue of contingency awareness in evaluative conditioning. First, she comments on several contentious issues arising from Field's review of the evaluative conditioning literature, second she critiques the data from his pilot study and finally she argues the case that EC is a distinct form of conditioning that can occur in the absence of contingency awareness. With reference to these criticisms, this reply attempts to address Hammerl's comments by exploring the issues of how awareness is defined, how it is best measured, and whether it is reasonable to believe that EC uniformly occurs in the absence of contingency awareness. The article concludes that the available evidence supports Field's proposition that EC is, in fact, Pavlovian learning. Copyright 2000 Academic Press.     

Regulatory Fit,Processing Fluency,and Narrative Persuasion

For millennia, people have used narratives to inform and persuade. However, little social psychological research addresses how and when narrative persuasion occurs, perhaps because narratives are complex stimuli that are difficult to vary without significantly changing the plot or characters. Existing research suggests that regulatory fit and/or processing fluency can be varied easily and in ways completely exterior to narrative content but that nonetheless affect how much narratives engage, transport, and persuade. We review research on narrative transportation and persuasion and then discuss regulatory fit and its relationship to processing fluency. Afterward, we discuss how regulatory fit and processing fluency may affect psychological engagement, transportation, and persuasion via narratives.     

Aging, encoding fluency, and metacognitive monitoring

Encoding fluency (how rapidly one generates a mediator for a new association) may be a cue used to judge one's own learning. To evaluate age differences in utilization of this cue, older and younger adults were instructed to use interactive imagery to study paired associates, pressing a button to indicate when an image had been formed for a given pair. A judgment of learning (JOL) was also made immediately after each pair had been studied. Hence, at least two cues pertaining to encoding fluency-whether an image had been formed (a diagnostic cue) and the latency of formation (a nondiagnostic one)-were available when making JOLs. Age equivalence was found in JOL accuracy, and JOLs for both age groups were positively related to imagery formation and were negatively related to the latency of image formation. Moreover, subjectively judged latency correlated higher with JOLs than actual (objective) latency, supporting the hypothesis that perceived fluency is a cue used in constructing JOLs.     

Diagnostic issues,multiple paraphilias,and comorbid disorders in sexual offenders: Their incidence and treatment

This paper critically appraises the criteria for DSM diagnoses of the paraphilias relevant to sexual offenders. It is concluded that these criteria leave a lot to be desired and that a more helpful approach would be to rate the features of each type of sexual offender along dimensions ranging from normal to seriously problematic. Next consideration is given to the evidence on the incidence of multiple paraphilias and comorbid disorders. It is not yet completely clear from this evidence that sexual offenders typically have multiple sexual outlets although some obviously do. What is clear is that incidence of comorbid disorders is sufficiently high to warrant concerns about how to effectively address these additional disordered aspects of sexual offenders in treatment. Finally, suggestions are offered about how to address in treatment both multiple paraphilic offenders and those with associated comorbid disorders.     

Fluency, familiarity, aging, and the illusion of truth

Research has shown that repeated statements are rated as more credible than new statements. However, little research has examined whether such "illusions of truth" can be produced by contextual (nonmnemonic) influences, or compared to the magnitude of these illusions in younger and older adults. In two experiments, we examined how manipulations of perceptual and conceptual fluency influenced truth and familiarity ratings made by young and older adults. Stimuli were claims about companies or products varying in normative familiarity. Results showed only small effects of perceptual fluency on rated truth or familiarity. In contrast, manipulating conceptual fluency via semantic/textual context had much larger effects on rated truth and familiarity, with the effects modulated by normative company familiarity such that fluency biases were larger for lesser-known companies. In both experiments, young and older adults were equally susceptible to fluency-based biases.     

Fluency,Familiarity, Aging,and the Illusion of Truth

ABSTRACT

Research has shown that repeated statements are rated as more credible than new statements. However, little research has examined whether such “illusions of truth” can be produced by contextual (nonmnemonic) influences, or compared to the magnitude of these illusions in younger and older adults. In two experiments, we examined how manipulations of perceptual and conceptual fluency influenced truth and familiarity ratings made by young and older adults. Stimuli were claims about companies or products varying in normative familiarity. Results showed only small effects of perceptual fluency on rated truth or familiarity. In contrast, manipulating conceptual fluency via semantic/textual context had much larger effects on rated truth and familiarity, with the effects modulated by normative company familiarity such that fluency biases were larger for lesser-known companies. In both experiments, young and older adults were equally susceptible to fluency-based biases.