Increased Error-Related Brain Activity in Six-Year-Old Children with Clinical Anxiety

Anxiety disorders are the most frequently diagnosed form of psychopathology in children and often result in chronic impairment that persists into adulthood. Identifying neurobehavioral correlates of anxiety that appear relatively early in life would inform etiological models of development and allow intervention and prevention strategies to be implemented more effectively. The error-related negativity (ERN), a negative deflection in the event-related potential at fronto-central sites approximately 50 ms following the commission of errors, has been consistently found to be larger among anxious adults. The current study sought to extend these findings to even younger individuals: the ERN was elicited by a Go/NoGo task in 48 six year-old children with a clinical anxiety disorder assessed by diagnostic interview and 48 age-matched controls. In addition to child anxiety disorder, the ERN was examined in relation to maternal history of anxiety disorder, which was previously related to a smaller ERN. Anxious children were characterized by a larger (i.e., more negative) ERN and maternal history of anxiety disorder was associated with a smaller ERN. Thus, the relationship between an increased ERN and clinical anxiety is evident by age 6, and this effect appears independent from an opposing influence of maternal anxiety history on the ERN. These findings support the ERN as a promising neurobehavioral marker of anxiety, and implications are discussed.     

An Experimental Therapeutics Approach to the Development of a Novel Computerized Treatment Targeting Error-Related Brain Activity in Young Children

In the current study, we utilize an experimental medicine approach to examine the extent to which a single-session, computerized intervention impacts a transdiagnostic neural marker of risk (i.e., the error-related negativity [ERN]) in 70 children between the ages of 6 and 9 years. The ERN is a deflection in the event-related potential occurring after an individual makes a mistake on a lab-based task and has been shown to be transdiagnostically associated with a variety of anxiety disorders (e.g., social anxiety, generalized anxiety), obsessive-compulsive disorder, and depressive disorders in over 60 studies to date. Building on these findings, work has been done to link an increased ERN to negative reactions to, and avoidance of, making mistakes (i.e., error sensitivity). In the current study, we capitalize on this previous work by examining the extent to which a single-session, computerized intervention may engage the target of “error sensitivity” (measured by the ERN, as well as self-report of error sensitivity). We examine the convergence of multiple measures of the construct of “error sensitivity” (i.e., child self-report, parent report on child, and child electroencephalogram [EEG]). We also examine relationships between these three measures of “error sensitivity” and child anxiety symptoms. Overall, results suggested that treatment condition predicted changes in self-reported error sensitivity but not changes in ERN. Based on the lack of previous work in this area, we view this study as a novel, preliminary, first step toward using an experimental medicine approach to examine our ability to engage the target of the ERN (i.e., error sensitivity) early in development.     

Self-Reported Parenting of Clinic-Referred and Non-referred Mexican American Mothers of Young Children

Behavioral parent training (BPT) interventions for child behavior problems have been based on decades of research that demonstrate links between particular parent behaviors and child externalizing problems. However, the majority of this research has been conducted with European-American (EA) families, and less is known about whether these findings can be generalized to Mexican Americans (MAs). In the current study, we investigated self-reported parenting practices that have been associated with externalizing behavior problems among EA families (harsh parenting, inconsistency, and low parental warmth), to determine if those practices can also differentiate MA mothers whose young children have clinically significant behavior problems from MA mothers whose children do not have behavior problems. Participants were 115 MA families with young children, 58 with a child with clinically significant behavior problems and 57 with a child in the normal range for such problems. Results indicated that MA mothers whose children have behavior problems self-reported significantly less warmth and consistency and more harsh parenting compared to parents whose children’s behavior was in the normal range. These findings indicate that parenting behaviors that are associated with externalizing behavior problems among EA families are associated with the same problems among MA families with young children, suggesting that parent training interventions designed to target these behaviors are also likely to be relevant to MA families with children in this age range. However, findings also indicate that parenting behaviors differ depending on acculturation level, suggesting that BPT programs must respond to variation in normative parenting practices for MA families.     

Couple Conflict in Parents of Children with versus without Autism: Self-Reported and Observed Findings

We compared the couple conflict of parents of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) to a comparison group of parents of children without disabilities using self-reported and observational measures. In total, 178 couples who had a child with ASD (aged 5–12 years) and 174 couples who had children without disabilities (aged 5–12 years), recruited from a Midwestern state in the United States, reported on couple conflict in everyday life and engaged in an observed couple conflict interaction. Parents of children with ASD reported more frequent, severe, and unresolved couple problems than the comparison group. Parents who had a child with ASD were observed to have less engaged, balanced, and cooperative couple conflict interactions, but demonstrated more positive affect and sensitivity towards one another, than parents in the comparison group. Group differences had small effect sizes. Findings have implications for marital therapy and relationship education programs.     

Parent Report of Attention Problems Predicts Later Adaptive Functioning in Children with Brain Tumors

Children with brain tumors are at risk for psychological and behavioral difficulties. This study examined the ability of parent report of attention problems, withdrawal, anxiety, and depression, as well as IQ, to predict later adaptive functioning in 42 children treated for brain tumors. Age at diagnosis, SES, gender, and scores on the Neurological Predictor Scale (NPS) also were examined as predictors. Parent report of attention problems, SES, and NPS were significant predictors of later adaptive functioning across domains. This finding highlights the ability of parent report of attention problems to predict later adaptive functioning in children treated for brain tumors.     

Parenting and Anxiety: Bi-directional Relations in Young Children

Developmental psychopathologists have long posited a reciprocal relation between parenting behaviors and the development of child anxiety symptoms. Yet, little empirical research has utilized a longitudinal design that would allow exploration of this bi-directional influence. The present study examined the reciprocal relations between parental respect for autonomy, parental hostility, and parental support, and the development of childhood anxiety during a critical developmental period-the transition from preschool to kindergarten and then first grade. Study participants included a community sample of 391 male and 405 female socioeconomically, racially and ethnically diverse 4 to 6–7 year olds. 54 % of the sample was White, non-Hispanic, 16.8 % was African American, 20.4 % was Hispanic, 2.4 % were Asian and 4.4 % self-identified as Other or mixed race. Parent report and observational methodology were used. Parenting and anxiety were found to interact reciprocally over time. Higher levels of age 4 anxiety led to reduced respect for child autonomy at age 5. At age 4 higher levels of parental hostility led to small increases in age 5 anxiety, and increased age 5 anxiety led to increased levels of age 6 parent hostility. Parental support at age 5 resulted in decreased anxiety symptoms at age 6–7 while higher age 5 anxiety levels were associated with reductions in age 6–7 parental support. No relations were found between these variables at the younger ages. Although the magnitude of these findings was small, they suggest that early treatment for childhood anxiety should include both parent intervention and direct treatment of the child’s anxiety symptoms.     

Intergenerational Transfer of Parenting Styles: Correlations between Experience of Punitive Discipline in Childhood,Opinion Regarding Discipline Methods,and Context of Parenting

The purpose of this research is to study the intergenerational correlations of punitive disciplining of children. In an international sample, 112 individuals evaluated their experience of disciplinary methods from their childhood, as well as current perception of disciplinary methods and their own context of parenting. The results showed that the experience of corporal punishment or psychological aggression in childhood correlates with acceptability of inflicting corporal punishment or psychological aggression as a parent. There was an interaction between the experience of punitive discipline and experiencing confidence in carrying out parenting tasks and experiencing present-day stress. Context of parenting (e.g., confidence in carrying out parenting tasks) and perceptions of punitive disciplining might help us understand intergenerational transfer of parenting styles.     

Family Impact and Parenting Styles in Families of Children with ADHD

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) begins in childhood and is characterized by attention deficits, hyperactivity, or impulsiveness that is inconsistent with a child’s developmental level. The effects of ADHD are not limited to the child alone but can affect their familial context, particularly parenting styles. Using data from 68 parents of 6–11-year-old ADHD-diagnosed children, we attempted to identify the predictive variables of two parenting styles: criticism-rejection and permissiveness-indulgence. We analyzed two complex predictive models using structural equation modeling. We hypothesized that family impact variables would mediate the relation between the child’s behavior and parenting. The data showed that the child’s ADHD was only indirectly related to parenting styles, whereas child’s behavior problems had a direct relationship. The results stressed the central role of the child’s behavior on family social life, parents’ marital relationship, and parents’ feelings about their children. These variables mediated the relationship between the children’s disorders and parenting styles. On the other hand, perceived social support had an inverse relationship with this negative family impact, and it even had relevant indirect effects on criticism and permissiveness.     

Clinical,Sociobiological, and Cognitive Predictors of ADHD Persistence in Children Followed Prospectively Over Time

With increasing awareness that ADHD is chronically disabling, a burgeoning literature has examined childhood clinical indicators of ADHD persistence. This study investigates whether childhood factors reflecting biological risk and cognitive reserve have additive predictive value for the persistence of ADHD that is unique beyond childhood indicators of disorder severity. One-hundred thirty children with ADHD (mean age = 8.9 years, 75 % male) were followed into adolescence (mean age = 14.0 years). Childhood ADHD and co-morbidities were assessed via interviews with parents and teachers; parental psychopathology was assessed via parent interview; exposure to neurobiological and psychosocial adversity were indexed by parent questionnaire; and cognitive reserve was evaluated through children’s performance on measures of IQ and executive functioning. Univariate analyses identified childhood inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity, co-morbid oppositional defiant disorder, overall impairment, and paternal anxiety and depression as more prevalent amongst adolescents with persistent compared with remitted ADHD. Only child-level predictors remained significant in a final multivariate model. These results suggest that children who are most likely to experience persistent ADHD have a more severe clinical presentation in childhood, reflected by increased levels of inattention, oppositional behavior, and impairment. They also are more likely to have fathers with internalizing concerns, but these concerns do not uniquely predict ADHD persistence beyond child-level factors. Contrary to expectations, childhood adversity and cognitive functioning did not predict the course of ADHD.     

Self-Reported Depressive Symptoms Have Minimal Effect on Executive Functioning Performance in Children and Adolescents

The relation between mood and executive functioning in children and adolescents has not been previously reported. This study examined the association between self-reported depressive symptoms in both clinical outpatient and psychiatric inpatient samples to the following measures of executive functioning: the Controlled Oral Word Association Test, Animal Naming, Trail Making Test, and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Records from children and adolescents aged 7–17 years old with an IQ > 70 were examined. Data were gathered at either an outpatient neuropsychology clinic (n = 89) or an inpatient psychiatric hospital setting (n = 81). Mood was measured with the Children’s Depression Inventory. Generally, statistical associations between self-reported depressive symptoms and executive functioning were small and non-significant. The variance predicted by mood on measures of executive functioning was minimal (generally less than 2 %) for the total sample, the outpatient group, inpatient group, and a subgroup who endorsed elevated mood symptoms. These results suggest that impaired performance on measures of executive functioning in children and adolescents is minimally related to self-reported depressive symptoms.     

Gender Differences in the Relationship Between Academic Self-Concept and Self-Reported Depressed Mood in School Children

In light of literature highlighting gender differences related to academic self-concept and depressed mood, this study explored the contributions of academic self-concept in individual subject areas to self-reported depressed mood in 86 elementary-age boys and girls from a province in central Canada. Results indicated that academic self-concept explained 68% and 62% of the variance in self-reported depressed mood for boys and girls, respectively. Separate analyses conducted for boys and girls indicated disparate predictive models that cohered with gender stereotypic self-perceptions: math for boys and reading for girls. Interestingly, physical education emerged as a significant contributor for boys and girls. Results are discussed in terms of the importance of addressing the relationship between children’s social-emotional self-perceptions and academic self-concept within domain-specific lenses.     

Associations Between the Repressive Adaptive Style and Self-Reported Hope in Mexican American and Euro-American Children

The investigators factor-analyzed abstract art preferences and correlated art factors with traits on the Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey. Factors were derived from preference ratings on the “Abstract Art Test” developed by Knapp and Green in a previous study. Two of the three multiple loading factors were “non-geometric” or expressionistic; one was “geometric,” rationalistic. Only 2 of the 30 correlations with the GZTS scales were significant at the .10 level, and these could have been due to chance. There is support for dichotomizing abstract art types into “geometric” and “non-geometric” but little support for the role of temperament in aesthetic preference.     

Attention and Memory in Children with Brain Tumors

The Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test was utilized to examine attention, learning, and memory abilities in 42 children with cerebellar (N?=?18) and third ventricle tumors (N?=?24). Children with cerebellar tumors exhibited significant auditory attentional impairments and displayed adequate encoding and retrieval across subsequent learning and memory trials. In contrast, children with third ventricle tumors exhibited average auditory attentional abilities, but they displayed mild encoding deficits across trials 2–5. Furthermore, the third ventricle group's compromised performance on the delayed recall trial and average performance on the delayed recognition trial is suggestive of underlying retrieval deficits.     

The Stability of Self-Reported Physical Symptoms in African American Mothers and Their Impact on Children

Self-reported physical symptoms are an important marker of health and well-being, particularly among African American women. The stability of African American women’s physical symptoms or the impact of their symptoms on their children, however, has yet to be examined. This longitudinal study examined the stability of maternal self-reported physical symptoms, as well as their role in shaping child-reported physical symptoms, among 137 low-income African American families. Findings revealed that mothers’ self-reported physical symptoms were stable over 2.5 years. Mothers who reported higher levels of physical symptoms were more likely to have children who concurrently reported higher levels of symptoms. Physical symptoms reported by mothers at the first assessment also predicted child-reported physical symptoms 2.5 years later, but only for boys. Physical symptoms appear to be an important, yet understudied, symptom domain that may have significant implications for the health and well-being of African American families.     

The Relationship Between Parenting Styles and Creativity in a Sample of Jamaican Children

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between parenting styles and creativity among a sample of Jamaican students and their parents. A total of 54 parents and 66 students participated in the study. Results revealed that the authoritarian style of parenting is the most salient predictor of creativity in children and that this relationship was negative. In addition, parents’ level of creativity was greater than that of their children and was also predictive of children's level of creativity. The creativity level of children in the sample was lower than that of the normative sample. Because creativity is linked to critical thinking, the implications of this study is especially pertinent to the Jamaican population, which is noted for its authoritarian style of parenting.     

A Pilot Randomized Trial of an Online Parenting Skills Program for Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury: Improvements in Parenting and Child Behavior

This pilot study examined changes in parenting skills and child behavior following participation in an online positive parenting skills program designed for young children with traumatic brain injury (TBI). Thirty-seven families with a child between 3 and 9 years of age who sustained a moderate to severe TBI were randomly assigned to one of two interventions: online parenting skills training (n = 20) or access to Internet resources on managing brain injury (n = 17). Parent–child interaction observations and parent ratings of child behavior were collected pre- and post-treatment. Generalized estimating equations and mixed models were used to examine changes in parenting skills and child behavior problems as well as the moderating role of family income on treatment response. Participants in the parenting skills group displayed significant improvements in observed positive parenting skills relative to participants in the Internet resource group. Income moderated improvements in parent ratings of child behavior, with participants in the low-income parenting skills group and high-income Internet resource group reporting the greatest improvements in behavior. This is the first randomized controlled trial examining online parenting skills training for families of young children with TBI. Improvements in positive parenting skills and child behavior support the utility of this intervention, particularly for families from lower socioeconomic backgrounds.