Verbal Communication,Nonverbal Communication,and Private Speech in Lower and Middle Socioeconomic Status Preschool Children

Three types of communication—verbal, nonverbal, and private speech—were investigated in 4- and 5-year-old children. Multiple analyses of variance (MANOVAs) without IQ controlled and multiple analyses of covariance (MANCOVAs) with IQ as a covariate were computed and followed by ANOVAs and ANCOVAs to determine the effects of sex, age, and socioeconomic status (SES) on each of these types of communication. The ANOVAs and the ANCOVAs yielded the same conclusions. Results indicated that age and SES, but not sex, influence the use of the three communication types. From age 4 to age 5, private speech decreased for middle SES children and remained the same for lower SES children. Although lower SES children had more nonverbal communication at both age levels than middle SES children, nonverbal communication decreased for middle SES children and increased for lower SES children between the ages of 4 and 5 years. Both lower and middle SES groups increased in verbal communication between the two ages. The middle SES 4-year-olds used more verbal communication than their lower SES counterparts, and the difference was maintained at age 5. Although IQ is related to verbal communication, statistically controlling for the effects of IQ did not change the conclusions.     

Hemisphere size asymmetry predicts relative verbal and nonverbal intelligence differently in the sexes: An MRI study of structure—Function relations

Hemispheric size asymmetry differences as assessed from MRIs of 39 healthy college students were correlated with prorated WAIS-R Verbal IQ minus Performance IQ and Vocabulary minus Block Design scores within subjects. In men, a relatively larger left hemisphere predicted better verbal than nonverbal ability, whereas in women a larger left hemisphere predicted relatively better nonverbal than verbal ability. The results were interpreted as providing evidence for sex differences in brain organization.     

Verbal communication, nonverbal communication, and private speech in lower and middle socioeconomic status preschool children.

Three types of communication--verbal, nonverbal, and private speech--were investigated in 4- and 5-year-old children. Multiple analyses of variance (MANOVAs) without IQ controlled and multiple analyses of covariance (MANCOVAs) with IQ as a covariate were computed and followed by ANOVAs and ANCOVAs to determine the effects of sex, age, and socioeconomic status (SES) on each of these types of communication. The ANOVAs and the ANCOVAs yielded the same conclusions. Results indicated that age and SES, but not sex, influence the use of the three communication types. From age 4 to age 5, private speech decreased for middle SES children and remained the same for lower SES children. Although lower SES children had more nonverbal communication at both age levels than middle SES children, nonverbal communication decreased for middle SES children and increased for lower SES children between the ages of 4 and 5 years. Both lower and middle SES groups increased in verbal communication between the two ages. The middle SES 4-year-olds used more verbal communication than their lower SES counterparts, and the difference was maintained at age 5. Although IQ is related to verbal communication, statistically controlling for the effects of IQ did not change the conclusions.     

Reorganization of the cerebro-cerebellar network of language production in patients with congenital left-hemispheric brain lesions

Patients with congenital lesions of the left cerebral hemisphere may reorganize language functions into the right hemisphere. In these patients, language production is represented homotopically to the left-hemispheric language areas. We studied cerebellar activation in five patients with congenital lesions of the left cerebral hemisphere to assess if the language network is reorganized completely in these patients, i.e. including also cerebellar language functions. As compared to a group of controls matched for age, sex, and verbal IQ, the patients recruited an area not in the right but in the left cerebellar hemisphere. The extent of laterality of the cerebellar activation correlated significantly with the laterality of the frontal activation. We suggest that the developing brain reacts to early focal lesions in the left hemisphere with a mirror-image organization of the entire cerebro-cerebellar network engaged in speech production.     

The WISC-V in children and adolescents with epilepsy

Despite its popularity in the neuropsychological evaluation of children, the utility of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – Fifth Edition (WISC-V) has not yet been investigated in children with epilepsy. Eighty clinically referred children and adolescents with epilepsy were administered the WISC-V as part of a comprehensive assessment and scores were compared to matched controls from the WISC-V standardization sample. T tests compared WISC-V indices and subtests between patients and controls and Chi-square analyses compared the rates of low scores. Correlational analyses assessed the relationships between epilepsy severity variables (e.g., age of onset, duration of epilepsy, number of antiepileptic drugs, seizure frequency). All WISC-V composites and subtests were significantly lower in patients versus controls and the rate of low scores was higher in patients than controls for all composites and subtests with the exception of Figure Weights. The Working Memory Index and Processing Speed Index were most sensitive to impairment, while the Verbal Comprehension Index and Fluid Reasoning Index were least sensitive. Of the epilepsy severity variables, age of seizure onset and number of antiepileptic drugs were strong predictors of deficits, whereas seizure frequency was the weakest predictor. Importantly, no significant differences were seen in children with right hemisphere epilepsy versus left on the five WISC-V composites, though a trend was seen towards a lower Visual-Spatial Index in those with right-sided focal seizures.     

Learning and Recall of Story Content and Spatial Location After Unilateral Temporal-Lobe Excision in Children and Adolescents

The present study examined verbal and spatial learning and memory in children and adolescents who had undergone unilateral temporal lobectomy versus controls. All participants were trained to criterion before a delay to assess learning efficiency. There were no significant differences between the groups in rate of learning the verbal task. The right temporal-lobe group, but not the left, had difficulty learning spatial information. These findings indicate a specific effect of early right temporal-lobe lesions on spatial learning. As material-specificity is more often found in adults for verbal information, the present results highlight the unique role of the temporal-lobe in development.     

Learning and recall of story content and spatial location after unilateral temporal-lobe excision in children and adolescents.

The present study examined verbal and spatial learning and memory in children and adolescents who had undergone unilateral temporal lobectomy versus controls. All participants were trained to criterion before a delay to assess learning efficiency. There were no significant differences between the groups in rate of learning the verbal task. The right temporal-lobe group, but not the left, had difficulty learning spatial information. These findings indicate a specific effect of early right temporal-lobe lesions on spatial learning. As material-specificity is more often found in adults for verbal information, the present results highlight the unique role of the temporal-lobe in development.     

A comparison of children with epilepsy to an age- and IQ-matched control group on the Children's Memory Scale.

Past research has found that children with epilepsy exhibit decreased memory skills. In addition, some studies have found that children with epilepsy obtain significantly lower IQ scores than controls. In an effort to examine whether children with epilepsy have specific memory weaknesses versus global cognitive difficulties, the present study compared the performance of 62 children (age range = 6-16 years). Thirty-one children with epilepsy were compared to 31 age- and IQ-matched controls on the Children's Memory Scale (CMS) to determine whether differences in memory skills persist when IQ is matched. An independent t-test comparing index and scaled scores was performed. The results indicated that with the exception of the Word Pairs subtest (p < .01), children with epilepsy did not differ significantly on the CMS subtests when IQ was matched. This suggests that list-learning paradigms may be particularly sensitive to memory impairments in children with epilepsy and/or that children with epilepsy have more global cognitive impairments.     

A Comparison of Children with Epilepsy to an Age- and IQ-Matched Control Group on the Children's Memory Scale

Past research has found that children with epilepsy exhibit decreased memory skills. In addition, some studies have found that children with epilepsy obtain significantly lower IQ scores than controls. In an effort to examine whether children with epilepsy have specific memory weaknesses versus global cognitive difficulties, the present study compared the performance of 62 children (age range = 6–16 years). Thirty-one children with epilepsy were compared to 31 age- and IQ-matched controls on the Children's Memory Scale (CMS) to determine whether differences in memory skills persist when IQ is matched. An independent t-test comparing index and scaled scores was performed. The results indicated that with the exception of the Word Pairs subtest (p < .01), children with epilepsy did not differ significantly on the CMS subtests when IQ was matched. This suggests that list-learning paradigms may be particularly sensitive to memory impairments in children with epilepsy and/or that children with epilepsy have more global cognitive impairments.     

Training of School Psychologists in Neuropsychology and Brain Injury: Results of a National Survey of Training Programs

A previous study evaluating receptive language after unilateral brain damage in childhood hypothesized lateralized attention and memory deficits without direct measurement. Our study directly measured attention, memory, and language in order to evaluate empirically the severity and laterality of sequelae. The performances of 11 individuals with a unilateral ischemic-lesion (7 right and 4 left hemisphere) were compared to controls matched on age, sex, and socioeconomic status. Results suggest subtle but persistent deficits in verbal memory, functional memory, and speed of processing after a lesion to either hemisphere. Lesions sustained before two years of age were associated with the lowest IQ scores. Our findings provide support for a configural representation of language that can to some extent compensate for inefficient or damaged components (Bates, 1994), and the middle-ground lateralization position (Thal et al., 1991) that asserts initial hemispheric specialization with the potential for reorganization.     

Attention,Memory, and Language after Pediatric Ischemic Stroke

A previous study evaluating receptive language after unilateral brain damage in childhood hypothesized lateralized attention and memory deficits without direct measurement. Our study directly measured attention, memory, and language in order to evaluate empirically the severity and laterality of sequelae. The performances of 11 individuals with a unilateral ischemic-lesion (7 right and 4 left hemisphere) were compared to controls matched on age, sex, and socioeconomic status. Results suggest subtle but persistent deficits in verbal memory, functional memory, and speed of processing after a lesion to either hemisphere. Lesions sustained before two years of age were associated with the lowest IQ scores. Our findings provide support for a configural representation of language that can to some extent compensate for inefficient or damaged components (Bates, 1994), and the middle-ground lateralization position (Thal et al., 1991) that asserts initial hemispheric specialization with the potential for reorganization.     

Memory Outcome After Pediatric Epilepsy Surgery: Objective and Subjective Perspectives

Memory was investigated in 27 children and adolescents in a longitudinal study before and at one and two years after epilepsy surgery. A comparison group with intractable epilepsy (n = 15), matched in age, sex, age of seizure onset, and IQ, was studied at comparable points in time. Methods included administration of standardized measures of story recall and face recognition, and qualitative interviews to probe the participants’ perceptions of their memory function over time. There was no significant change over time in either group on the standardized measures. Site and laterality of excision, age at surgery, and seizure outcome were not predictive of change within the surgical group. The narratives revealed facets of memory that were problematic in daily life. The objective and subjective results showed low concordance regarding change, possibly due to limitations in the objective measures for capturing semantic and autobiographical memory.     

Interictal and postictal performances on dichotic listening test in children with focal epilepsy

Dichotic listening test (DL) is an important tool to disclose speech dominance in healthy subjects and in clinical cases. The aim of this study was to probe if focal epilepsy in children reveals a corresponding suppression of the ear reports contralateral to seizure onset site. Thus, 15 children and adolescents with clinically and electroencephalographically diagnosed focal epilepsy selected for left-hemisphere speech dominance without mental retardation were compared to matched controls according to age, gender, IQ and handedness. All children were assessed with DL for three times: Interictally (t(0)), postictally 5' (t(1)) and 1h (t(2)). At t(0), all groups revealed a right ear advantage (REA), indicating a left-hemisphere speech dominance. There was a continuous increase in right correct score (REC) over the trials for normal controls. Five minutes postictally, there was an abrupt decrease in REC with a sustained left ear correct score (LEC) for children with epilepsy, independent of which side suffered from seizures. This effect was maintained even after 1h. Thus, in children with left-hemisphere speech dominance the epileptic discharges caused a suppression of REC regardless of origin. The seizures may have a prolonged impact on attention and auditory perception for a considerable time after consciousness has been regained.     

The impact of age at seizure onset on the likelihood of atypical language representation in children with intractable epilepsy

Studies have suggested that early postnatal lesions are associated with a greater likelihood of atypical speech representation than lesions acquired later in life. Comparison groups have been defined differently across studies, with age typically being treated as a dichotomous (i.e., early versus late lesion onset) rather than continuous variable. Thus, little is known about the age at which children become less likely to exhibit atypical representation following a brain insult. This study examined the likelihood of typical versus atypical speech representation in children with intractable epilepsy (n = 75). Age of seizure onset was treated as a continuous variable to examine whether there was a naturally occurring cut-off point after which the rate of atypical speech representation decreased. A much higher proportion of children with seizure onset prior to the fifth year showed atypical speech representation as compared to children whose seizures began after 5 years of age.     

Can music lessons increase the performance of preschool children in IQ tests?

The impact of music on human cognition has a distinguished history as a research topic in psychology. The focus of the present study was on investigating the effects of music instruction on the cognitive development of preschool children. From a sample of 154 preschool children of Tehran kindergartens, 60 children aged between 5 and 6 were randomly assigned to two groups, one receiving music lessons and the other (matched for sex, age and mother’s educational level) not taking part in any music classes. Children were tested before the start of the course of music lessons and at its end with 4 subtests of the Tehran-Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (TSB). The experimental group participated in twelve 75-min weekly music lessons. Statistical analysis showed significant IQ increase in participants receiving music lessons, specifically on the TSB verbal reasoning and short-term memory subtests. The numerical and visual/abstract reasoning abilities did not differ for the two groups after lessons. These data support studies that found similar skills enhancements in preschool children, despite vast differences in the setting in which the instruction occurred. These findings appear to be consistent with some neuroimaging and neurological observations which are discussed in the paper.     

Unilateral brain lesions in childhood: performance on the Revised Token Test

Comprehension of connected language as assessed by the Revised Token Test (RTT) was studied in 17 children with left hemisphere lesions (LL) and 11 with right hemisphere lesions (RL). LL children's significantly lower performance on several subtests than left controls (LC) matched by age, sex, race, and social class appeared to be related to the memory demands of these subtests rather than the limited syntactic elements assessed by the RTT. LL subjects requested significantly more command repetitions than control or RL subjects and when a repetition was not requested LL subjects often responded with immediacy. Although RL children tended to perform lower than right matched controls (RC), these differences were not significant nor readily related to either the memory or specific linguistic structures assessed. RL subjects required fewer command repetitions than LL subjects and exhibited a significantly greater frequency of immediate responses than controls or LL subjects. While based on few children, a trend for LL children with retrorolandic lesions to perform more poorly than those with left prerolandic lesions was suggested. No systematic difference in performance was apparent for children with left cortical vs. left subcortical lesions or among discrete sites of lesions within the right hemisphere. Children with left lesions prior to 1 year of age performed no better and, in several instances, significantly poorer than LL patients sustaining lesions after 1 year of age. Among RL subjects, those sustaining lesions after 1 year of age had greater difficulty than those with lesion onset before 1 year of age, especially on linguistic elements which seemed to be dependent upon visual spatial properties. Further studies are needed to evaluate the comprehension of more complex linguistic structures among children with unilateral brain lesions as well as to study the role of more basic factors such as memory and attention in explaining the present findings.     

A longitudinal study of motor ability and kinaesthetic acuity in young children at risk of developmental coordination disorder

Several studies have linked poor kinaesthetic ability with poor motor coordination in school-aged children. However, few studies have investigated kinaesthesis in younger children. The aim of this study was to determine if preschool aged children who have been identified as at risk of developing developmental coordination disorder (DCD) have poorer kinaesthetic ability than matched controls. Kinaesthetic ability and performance IQ were examined in a group of children aged between 4 and 5 years. Following individual assessment of 291 children, 31 were identified as at risk of DCD at this age. One year later, 30 of these children were retested, and 23 were still found to be at risk. These children were matched on verbal IQ, age and sex with control children and their performance compared on the kinaesthetic acuity test (KAT) [D.J. Livesey and N.A. Parkes, Aust. J. Psychol., 47 (1995) 160] and three subtests of the WPPSI-R performance IQ (D. Wechsler, Manual for the Wechsler preschool and primary scale of intelligence--revised, Psychological Corporation, New York, 1989). Both the KAT and the performance subtest scores were found to be significantly poorer in the children at risk of DCD. Follow-up testing one year later showed that both groups improved their kinaesthetic acuity score although the control children remained significantly better than the children with poor motor coordination.     

The relation between oral movement control and speech

A large series of neurological patients, selected solely on the basis that they had damage restricted to one hemisphere of the brain, was given a variety of tests of basic speech and praxic function. Within the left-damaged group, patients were further identified as aphasic or nonaphasic, based on preexisting standard tests of aphasia. Subgroups of aphasics were studied on the basis of lesion location, rather than on the basis of aphasia type. The focus of the study was the relation between the production of speech and nonspeech oral movements, particularly across anterior and posterior lesions. Reproduction of single nonverbal oral movements and of single isolated speech sounds was found to be very highly correlated, and both depended selectively on the left anterior region of the brain. This same region was critically important for rapid repeated articulation of a syllable, suggesting that it mediates control at some "unit" level of movement, in a phenomenological sense, for both speech and nonspeech movements. Other "speech" regions in the left hemisphere appeared to be dispensable for the production of single oral movements, whether these were verbal or nonverbal movements. However, for most aphasic patients, an area in the left posterior region was inferred to be essential for production of multiple oral movements, whether nonverbal or verbal, suggesting a critical role in the accurate selection of movements. Within the posterior region, there was further differentiation for multisyllabic speech into a parietal system, which appeared to mediate primarily praxic function, and a temporal system, which appeared to mediate verbal-echolalic function. Aphasias from anterior and posterior lesions resembled "Broca's" and "Wernicke's" aphasia only insofar as they differed in fluency, with anterior aphasics clearly less fluent. Tests of speech comprehension did not differentiate the groups. It is suggested that classifying aphasic patients via lesion location rather than aphasic typology might yield a view of functional subsystems different from those commonly accepted.     

Hemisphere functioning and motor imitation in autistic persons

Previous research has found that a high proportion of autistic individuals exhibit an atypical pattern of hemispheric specialization suggestive of impaired left hemisphere functioning: namely, right hemisphere dominance for both verbal and visual-spatial processing. Studies of brain-damaged persons have suggested that the left hemisphere is specialized for the use of nonverbal gesture. Since a major characteristic of autism is an impairment in the use of gesture, it was predicted that autistic persons would also show atypical hemispheric specialization for motor imitation. To test this hypothesis, hemispheric activation was measured using EEG recordings of alpha rhythm in autistic and matched normal control subjects during four motor imitation tasks. Autistic subjects showed significantly greater right hemisphere activation during the imitation tasks, than normal subjects. This pattern was particularly evident in younger autistic subjects and during oral, rather than manual, imitation tasks.     

Time sharing and dichotic listening asymmetry in normal and learning-disabled children

Time-sharing and dichotic listening techniques were used to examine cerebral lateralization for language function in 48 normal and 48 learning-disabled children. All subjects were matched according to age, sex, and handedness. An analysis of results indicated that both nornal and learning-disabled children demonstrated left hemisphere lateralization of language function on the time-sharing and dichotic listening tasks. However, no developmental trends were evident for either group. Differences observed in the performance of the normal and learning-disabled children may relate to how each group utilizes “verbal strategies” and processes simultaneous information in the left hemisphere. The results strongly question the notion that attributes learning disabilities to incomplete or delayed language lateralization and lend support to the notion that cerebral lateralization is not a developmental phenomena.