The Effects of Contact with Asians and Asian Americans on White American College Students: Attitudes, Awareness of Racial Discrimination, and Psychological Adjustment

On the basis of acculturation theory, explicating mutual influences between different cultural or ethnic groups coming into contact, this study focused "on the other side of acculturation" theory by examining the effects of intercultural contact with Asians and Asian Americans on the psychosocial experiences of White American college students. Participants (N = 315), undergraduates attending a public university located within the state of Massachusetts, completed a survey that assessed demographic and personal characteristics, acculturation (extent of intercultural contact with Asian people and Asian cultures), attitudes towards Asians and Asian Americans, awareness of institutional discrimination and blatant racial issues, and psychological distress. Results indicated that White American students' intercultural contact with Asians and Asian Americans contributed significant variance to the prediction of their attitudes towards this ethnic group and awareness of discrimination and racial issues, but not to psychological distress. This study provides implications for understanding mutual acculturative influences between different ethnic groups in the United States.     

Cultural Values and Racial Identity Attitudes Among Asian American Students: An Exploratory Investigation

The content and structure of cultural value orientations were investigated in a group of Asian American undergraduate and graduate students. Cultural value differences were influenced by the participant's gender and racial identity status. Findings suggest a strong preference for distinct cultural value orientations that reflect both traditional Asian and European American cultural values. Implications for counseling and future research are addressed.     

The Relationship Between Racial Identity Status Attitudes and Acculturation Among Chinese and Korean Americans: A Criterion Profile Analysis

This study tested the relationship between racial identity and acculturation among 223 Asian Americans self‐identifying as Chinese American or Korean American. Findings showed within‐group variations among the study participants with regard to their racial identity status attitudes and acculturation. Using criterion profile analysis, the authors found 2 distinctive criterion profiles of racial identity status attitudes that significantly related to higher levels of acculturation among Chinese American and Korean American participants. Implications for multicultural counseling, racial identity, and acculturation research are discussed. Este estudio puso a prueba la relación entre identidad racial y aculturación entre 223 individuos asiático‐americanos que se identifican a sí mismos como chino‐americanos o coreano‐americanos. Los resultados mostraron variaciones dentro del miso grupo entre los participantes del estudio en cuanto a su aculturación y sus actitudes hacia el estatus de su identidad racial. Usando un análisis de perfil de criterio, los autores encontraron 2 perfiles de criterio distintivos para las actitudes hacia el estatus de identidad racial que estaban relacionados significativamente con niveles más altos de aculturación entre los participantes chino‐americanos y coreano‐americanos. Se discuten las implicaciones para investigaciones sobre consejería multicultural, identidad racial y aculturación.     

The Racial and Ethnic Identity Formation Process of Second‐Generation Asian Indian Americans: A Phenomenological Study

This phenomenological study elucidates the identity development processes of 12 second‐generation adult Asian Indian Americans. The results identify salient sociocultural factors and multidimensional processes of racial and ethnic identity development. Discrimination, parental, and community factors seemed to play a salient role in influencing participants’ racial and ethnic identity development. The emergent Asian Indian American racial and ethnic identity model provides a contextualized overview of key developmental periods and turning points within the process of identity development. Este estudio fenomenológico dilucida los procesos de desarrollo de la indentidad de 12 individuos Americano‐Indoasiáticos adultos. Los resultados identifican factores socioculturales destacados y procesos multidimensionales del desarrollo de la identidad racial y étnica. Los factores de discriminación, paternos y comunitarios parecieron jugar un papel destacado en su influencia sobre el desarrollo de la identidad racial y étnica de los participantes. El modelo emergente de identidad racial y étnica Americano‐Indoasiática proporciona una visión general contextualizada de los periodos clave del desarrollo y los puntos de inflexión durante el proceso del desarrollo de la identidad.     

Affinity, Identity, and Transcendence: The Experience of Religious Racial Integration in Diverse Congregations

How do members of disparate ethnic and racial heritages come to identify and achieve stable affiliation with multiracial congregations? This article specifies an approach to understanding member experiences of corporate belonging in diverse congregations using ethnic identity theory. Synthesizing ethnographic data drawn from two extensive case studies, the article provides a heuristic model for understanding the process by which members of disparate ethnic and racial heritages come to identify and achieve stable affiliation with multiethnic/multiracial congregations. Three “moments” (affinity with the congregation, identity reorientation, and ethnic transcendence) represent key phases in the lived religious experience of members as they co‐construct common bonds of spiritual kinship. Cautions and suggestions are provided for future research.     

The Relationship Between Racism and Racial Identity for White Americans: A Profile Analysis

This investigation examined how racial identity profiles, using J. E. Helms's (1996) profile scoring procedure, were related to racist attitudes. One finding showed that participants with an undifferentiated or flat profile scored significantly higher in racist attitudes than participants with other racial identity profiles. Implications for counseling practice and research are discussed. Esta investigación examina cómo los perfiles de identidad racial se relacionan con las actitudes racistas, utilizando el procedimiento de evaluar perfiles de J. E. Helms (1996). Un resultado encontró que los participantes con un perfil piano o no‐diferenciado obtuvieron mejores resultados en las actitudes raciales que los participantes con otros perfiles de identidad racial. Se evalúan también las consecuencias para la práctica de consejería y las investigaciones.     

Predicting Exercise and Health Behavioral Intentions: Attitudes,Subjective Norms,and Other Behavioral Determinants1

By comparing exercise and health domains, the current experiment extends recent findings that within‐participant analyses of attitudes and subjective norms predict behavioral intentions well (Finlay, Trafimow, & Moroi, 1999). Within‐participant analyses show that health behaviors are particularly likely to be influenced by subjective norms, and those that are relatively normatively influenced are intended to be performed more than those that are not. However, neither was true of exercise behaviors. Additionally, other potential predictors for exercise (e.g., indirect attitudinal measures and goal‐oriented attitudes and intentions) correlated more strongly with exercise behavioral intentions than did general health attitudes and intentions.     

The Impact of Feminist Attitudes on the Relation between Racial Awareness and Racial Identity

This study examined the role of liberal and inclusive feminist attitudes in the development of a positive racial identity in a sample of White female undergraduates in the Midwestern United States. Participants (N?=?90) provided self-report data on their racial awareness, liberal and inclusive feminist attitudes, racial identity and demographic information. The main research question was how and to what extent liberal and inclusive feminism influence the relationship between racial awareness and racial identity. Building on conceptual scholarship on identity theory and the intersectionality, results indicated that the relation between racial awareness and racial identity was partially mediated by inclusive feminist attitudes but not by liberal feminist attitudes. The results suggest that a specific type of feminism, which takes into account the experience of race, plays a significant role in our understanding of how White women develop a positive White identity. Results highlight the intersection of race and gender in college student development and have potential implications for administrative responses to student adjustment in increasingly diverse college environments.     

Social Relationships in the Church During Late Life: Assessing Differences Between African Americans,Whites, and Mexican Americans

The purpose of this study is to see if there are differences in the social relationships that older African Americans, older whites, and older Mexican Americans form with the people where they worship. Data from two large surveys are pooled to see if race differences emerge in eleven different measures of church-based social relationships. These measures assess social relationships with rank-and-file church members as well as social relationships with members of the clergy. The findings reveal that older African Americans tend to have more well-developed social relationships in the church than either older whites or older Mexican Americans. This is true with respect to relationships with fellow church members as well as relationships with the clergy. In contrast, relatively few differences emerged between older Americans of European descent and older Mexican Americans. However, when differences emerged in the data, older whites tend to score higher on the support measures than older Mexican Americans.     

Moderating Effects of Sociocultural Variables on Acculturation Attitudes of Hispanics and Asian Americans

Literature on acculturation is reviewed, and the effects of acculturation on the mental health of Hispanics and Asian Americans are discussed. In this study we attempted to understand acculturation processes at the group level (Hispanics versus Asian Americans) and at the individual level (within-group heterogeneity). The Majority-Minority Relations Survey measured acculturation attitudes of two American ethnic minority groups, Hispanics and Asian Americans, in a Midwestern university. Data were obtained from 282 participants for a 54% return rate. Instrument analysis included assessment of generalizability (using Pearson correlation coefficient procedures), LISREL confirmatory factor analysis, and tests of internal consistency reliabilities (using coefficient alpha). Significant effects for ethnicity, Asian culture subgroups, and for the sociocultural variables of generational status, voluntary immigration versus political asylum, and religion were indicated by parametric and nonparametric tests. Therefore, although differences between the Hispanics and the Asian Americans were indicated, within-group differences for both minority groups were also influenced by select sociocultural variables. Se revisa la literatura sobre aculturacion, y se discuten los efectos de aculturación en la salud mental de Hispanos y Asiático-Americanos. Este estudio intenta comprender el proceso de aculturación a nivel de grupo (Hispanos versus Asiático-Americanos) a nivel individual (dentro de la heterogeneidad del grupo). La Encuesta de Relaciones Mayoría-Minoría midió las actidudes aculturales de dos grupos de minorías étnicas americanas, Hispanos y Asiático-Americanos, en una universidad del Medio-oeste. Se obtuvieron los datos de 282 sujetos para un cifra de vuelta del 54 por cien. El instrumento de análisis incluó una estimación de generalización (usando los procedimientos del Coeficiente de Correlación de Pearson), el factor confirmador de análisis LISREL, y las pruebas de fiabilidad interna (usando el coeficiente alfa). Las pruebas parametricas y no-paramétricas indicaron efectos significativos para etnicidad, subgrupos culturales asiáticos, y los variables socioculturales de estado generacional, emigración voluntaria vs. asilo político, y religión. Entonces, aunque se indicaron diferencias entre Hispanos y Asiático-Americanos, las diferencias entre grupos para ambos grupos minoritarios fueron influenciadas también por variables socioculturales escogidas.     

White Americans' Attitudes Toward Asian Americans in Social Situations: An Empirical Examination of Potential Stereotypes,Bias, and Prejudice

The purpose of this study was to investigate the stereotypical attitudes of college students toward a variety of social situations involving Asian Americans. The authors were also interested in the effects of differential labeling of Asian Americans on the attitudes held toward them (i.e., “Asian” versus “Oriental”).     

The Relationship Between Racism and Racial Identity Among White Americans: A Replication and Extension

The purpose of this investigation was to assess the influence of White racial identity attitudes on racism. A total of 234 White undergraduate students participated in this investigation. The students completed the White Racial Identity Attitude Scale (Helms & Carter, 1990) and the New Racism Scale (Jacobson, 1985). Consistent with findings in previous research, White racial identity attitudes were predictive of racism. We also found gender and age differences in White racial identity attitudes. Implications of these findings are discussed in terms of the role of counselors in addressing racial awareness on college campuses.     

Treatment‐Seeking Disparity Between African Americans and Whites: Attitudes Toward Treatment,Coping Resources,and Racism

African Americans seek mental health treatment at lower rates than Whites. This disparity has been attributed to African Americans' attitudes toward services, alternate coping, and differences in care. Research on microaggressions adds an important element to this literature. Including discussion of microaggressions in counseling training may illuminate subtle student biases. Los individuos Afroamericanos buscan recibir tratamientos de salud mental en un índice menor que los Blancos. Esta disparidad ha sido atribuida a las actitudes de los Afroamericanos hacia los servicios, formas de afrontamiento alternativas, y a las diferencias en la asistencia. Las investigaciones sobre microagresiones añaden un elemento importante a esta documentación. Incluir la discusión sobre microagresiones en la formación de consejeros puede iluminar los sesgos sutiles de los estudiantes.     

Disclosing Extra-Dyadic Involvement (EDI): Understanding Attitudes, Subjective Norms, and Perceived Behavioral Control

Extra-dyadic involvement (EDI) is a complex issue that affects many individuals, couples, and families. One important, relatively unexplored issue concerns the disclosure of EDI. Despite some scholarly discourse on whether disclosure should be facilitated in a therapeutic context (e.g., Butler et al. in J Marital Fam Ther 35:125–143, 2009; Butler et al. in Am J Fam Ther 36:265–283, 2008), empirical research has not studied the intrapersonal or interpersonal processes related to disclosure. In this study, we explored potential factors involved in the decision to disclose EDI by looking at the relationships among attitudes towards EDI (in terms of perceived justifications and costs), subjective norms (obligation to disclose), and perceived behavioral control (difficulty) associated with EDI disclosure. Our sample included 337 individuals enrolled in at least one university course at one of three geographically distinct universities. Findings indicate that more permissive attitudes towards EDI are not significantly associated to the perceived difficulty in disclosing EDI or the obligation associated with disclosing EDI involving sexual intercourse. However, more permissive attitudes are related to lower felt obligation to disclose EDI that does not involve direct sexual intercourse. Conversely, more restrictive attitudes towards EDI (perceived severity, degree of perceived upset, and how detrimental it is perceived to be to the relationship) predicted greater difficulty but also greater obligation in disclosing all forms of EDI. Specific implications of these findings, including potential implications for therapy, are discussed. Overall, this study provides preliminary information regarding potentially useful factors to consider in understanding the EDI disclosure process that may also be useful in developing intervention points in therapy.     

African Americans' Stereotypes of Whites: Relationships With Social Dominance Orientation,Right-Wing Authoritarianism,and Group Identity

Abstract

[Hunt, J. McV. (Ed.). Personality and the Behavior Disorders. New York: Ronald Press, 1944. Pp. 1242 (2 vols.)]. Reviewed by C. H. Patterson     

Relation of Individualism–Collectivism and Ethnic Identity to Spiritual Transcendence Among European Americans,Asian Indian Americans,and Chinese Americans

The hypothesis that spirituality is influenced by individualism–collectivism and ethnic identity is investigated among European Americans (EAs), Asian Indian Americans (AIAs), and Chinese Americans (CAs) who completed measures of individualism–collectivism, ethnic identity, personality, and spiritual transcendence (ST). Data analyses indicated that EAs scored higher than both AIAs and CAs on the ST. Separate regression analyses on ST with demographics and personality as covariates and individualism–collectivism and ethnic identity as independent variables indicated that collectivism significantly predicted ST for EAs and AIAs, and resolution of ethnic identity significantly predicted ST for Chinese Americans.     

The Effects of Social Identity on the Self-Set Goals and Task Performance of High and Low Self-Esteem Individuals

Social identification with co-workers was examined as a moderator of the frequently inscrutable link between worker self-esteem and goal setting. Weak or strong social identity was created in groups comprised of either high or low self-esteem persons. As expected, strengthening social identity increased perceived similarity to ingroup members regardless of self-esteem. Furthermore, only high self-esteem individuals with a strong social identity set higher goals for themselves, and achieved better performance, compared to high esteem/weak identity individuals or low self-esteem persons in either social identity condition. Increments in the goals and performance of high self-esteem individuals were associated with perceived similarity to ingroup members, and performance was attributed to personal ability. In contrast, the goals and performance of low self-esteem individuals were associated with certainty of goal achievement, and performance was attributed to perceptions of task difficulty. Asymmetrical effects of social identification are discussed in relation to group member personalities.     

Racial Identity Status Profiles and Expressions of Anger in Black Americans: An Exploratory Study

The relationship between Black adult racial identity status profiles and anger expression was examined. Two profiles, Undifferentiated and Immersion‐Emersion, emerged. A comparison of modes of anger expression revealed that the Immersion‐Emersion dominant profile was associated with higher scores on Anger‐Out and lower scores on Anger‐Control. Implications for research and counseling are discussed. Se examinó la relación entre los perfiles del estado de la identidad racial de individuos Negros adultos y la expresión de ira. Surgieron dos perfiles, indiferenciado e inmersión‐emersión. Una comparación de los modos de expresión de la ira reveló que el perfil dominante de Inmersión‐Emersión estaba asociado a registros más altos en Ira‐Fuera y más bajos en Control de la ira. Se discuten las implicaciones para la investigación y la consejería.     

Social Norms and Cooperation in Social Dilemmas: The Effects of Context and Feedback

Drawing from research on social norms, we proposed and tested the hypothesis that people behave more competitively in social dilemmas involving economic decisions compared to those involving noneconomic decisions. We also proposed that people would compete more if they see that others have unexpectedly competed in a prior situation and cooperate more when others have unexpectedly cooperated in a previous situation. Further, we hypothesized that if others behave consistently with expectations, such behaviors (either cooperative or competitive) would not affect subsequent behavior. One hundred ninety-five under graduate students participated in an experiment in which they made choices in two different social dilemma games. Results support the hypotheses, and the discussion addresses the implications of the study for research on social norms and decision making.