2~3岁幼儿执行功能与母子互动的关系:幼儿气质的调节作用

研究考察幼儿气质与母子互动质量对执行功能的作用。160名2~3岁幼儿及其母亲（主要抚养者）完成了亲子互动任务,然后幼儿完成工作记忆、认知灵活性与抑制控制的测查任务。结果发现母子互动质量对幼儿认知灵活性有显著预测作用,幼儿努力控制负向调节母子互动与认知灵活性的关系,即幼儿努力控制维度得分越高,母子互动对幼儿认知灵活性的作用越小。研究表明幼儿气质与亲子互动质量的交互作用解释幼儿执行功能的发展水平。     

不同年级学生执行功能发展水平研究

工作记忆、抑制控制及认知灵活性是执行功能的主要成分。以小学三年级、五年级,初中二年级、高中二年级320名学生为被试,研究了他们执行功能各成分的发展。结果发现:工作记忆广度、抑制控制、认知灵活性的发展随着年级(或年龄)的增长而发展,各年级之间存在显著差异。     

3~6岁儿童执行功能子成分发展的研究

执行功能是对目标指向活动进行信息整合和控制调节的一系列认知能力,在学前期发展迅速。研究使用执行功能任务组软件考察了210名3~6岁儿童（6组,组间年龄跨度6个月）执行功能各子成分（工作记忆、抑制控制和认知灵活性）的发展特征。结果表明：（1）随年龄增长,3~6岁儿童执行功能呈上升趋势发展,4岁左右为抑制控制与认知灵活性的高速发展期;（2）执行功能各子成分发展不同步,抑制控制最快,工作记忆最慢;（3）各子成分间呈中度正相关。结论：3~6岁执行功能能力发展迅速,但各子成分的发展进程并不一致;幼儿阶段执行功能测试的年龄分组最好精确到6个月。     

学龄前留守儿童亲子依恋对执行功能的影响:祖孙依恋的调节作用和中介作用

本研究探究了学龄前留守儿童亲子依恋、祖孙依恋与执行功能之间的关系,并进一步分析了祖孙依恋的调节作用和中介作用。对155名南昌市农村地区的学龄前留守儿童及其父母亲和（外）祖父母进行研究,研究工具包括亲子依恋量表（Waters Attachment Q-sort Items）和执行功能任务组。结果表明：（1）学龄前留守儿童亲子依恋与祖孙依恋、执行功能子成分抑制控制呈显著正相关,祖孙依恋与执行功能子成分抑制控制和认知灵活性呈显著正相关;（2）祖孙依恋在亲子依恋对学龄前留守儿童执行功能子成分抑制控制的影响之间存在调节效应;（3）祖孙依恋在亲子依恋对学龄前留守儿童执行功能子成分抑制控制和认知灵活性的影响之间存在中介效应。结论是可通过改善亲子依恋和祖孙依恋的质量来促进儿童执行功能的发展。     

正念训练提升3~4岁幼儿注意力和执行功能

正念训练是指个体将注意力集中于当下体验的一种心理干预方法。先前研究表明正念训练可以促进其注意力、执行功能、情绪调节等的发展, 而正念训练对幼儿心理发展的作用机制并不清楚。因此, 为了考察正念训练对3~4岁幼儿注意力和执行功能的影响。采用前后测设计, 对正念组进行每周2次, 每次20~30分钟, 共12次的正念训练; 对照组不进行任何训练。结果发现：(1) 在注意力方面, 正念组与对照组前测差异不显著, 训练后正念组幼儿持续性注意力得分显著高于对照组。(2) 在执行功能方面, 正念组和实验组在抑制控制、认知灵活性以及工作记忆上前测得分差异不显著, 训练后正念组幼儿抑制控制和认知灵活性得分显著优于对照组, 而两组幼儿工作记忆差异不显著。研究表明, 正念训练促进了3~4岁幼儿注意力和执行功能的发展, 且在执行功能方面主要表现为对抑制控制和认知灵活性的提升。     

2～3.5岁儿童执行功能发展特点及其言语能力的影响

2~3.5岁是婴儿成长到幼儿的重要发展转折期,也是儿童执行功能及言语能力的发展萌芽期。研究通过测查北京市81名2~3.5岁儿童在固定盒子任务、搭积木任务、A非B任务和皮博迪图片词汇测验上的表现,探究了该年龄段儿童执行功能的发展特点、各成分间的内部关系、以及言语能力对执行功能的影响。结果发现:(1)在2~3.5岁期间,除认知灵活性外,儿童的工作记忆与抑制控制均快速发展,其中,2.5岁前后是工作记忆与抑制控制的重要发展时期;(2)在2~3岁期间,认知灵活性与工作记忆之间相关密切,在3~3.5岁期间,认知灵活性与抑制控制的相关密切,3岁是儿童执行功能内部成分关系的重要发展转折期;(3)在2~3.5岁期间,儿童言语能力呈现快速发展,并且言语能力对该年龄段执行功能各成分间关系产生一定的影响,但不同言语能力的儿童在执行功能各成分的表现并没有显著差异。     

音乐训练对大学生执行功能的影响

近年来大量研究发现音乐训练对认知能力的具有积极影响,一些理论认为音乐训练的广泛迁移效应是通过执行功能起中介作用,但音乐训练与执行功能的关系至今仍存争议。研究将执行功能分为抑制控制、工作记忆和认知灵活性三个子成分,并将抑制控制进一步细分为注意抑制和反应抑制,同时区分工作记忆中主动性控制和反应性控制两种认知过程。通过对比音乐组和控制组在执行功能各任务（Go/No-go, Stroop, AX-CPT, Task-switching）上的行为表现来系统考察音乐训练与执行功能的关系。结果表明音乐训练对执行功能不同子成分的影响具有差异性,其促进效应主要体现在抑制控制中的注意抑制和工作记忆中的主动性控制,对抑制控制中的反应抑制、工作记忆中的反应性控制和认知灵活性影响较小。     

元认知监控的机制:认知灵活性的调节作用

元认知监控作为元认知的核心成分,是内隐程度较高的心理活动。研究采用认知操作法,以MasterMind游戏任务为载体,从执行功能中认知灵活性的角度,探讨了元认知监控的内部机制。结果发现:元认知监测对元认知控制的作用受到认知灵活性的调节作用。对于高认知灵活性的学生,元认知监测水平越高,元认知控制越好;对于低认知灵活性的学生,元认知监测水平的高低不会引起元认知控制水平的显著变化。研究结果表明,高认知灵活性的学生能根据元认知监测进行有效元认知控制,而低认知灵活性的学生其元认知监测水平的提高没有影响元认知控制。结合元认知监控与执行功能进行了讨论。     

学前期儿童执行功能和语言的双向关系:社会经济地位的调节

采用追踪研究考察258名学前儿童执行功能与语言的双向关系,及二者关系是否受社会经济地位调节。交叉滞后结果表明,学前儿童语言发展与执行功能三个子成分（抑制控制、认知灵活性、工作记忆）存在双向关系;T1时儿童语言对T2时认知灵活性的预测作用受家庭社会经济地位调节：在高社会经济地位家庭中,T1时间儿童的语言能显著正向预测T2时认知灵活性,低社会经济地位家庭中预测作用不显著;其余双向关系中调节作用均不显著。本研究表明,学前儿童执行功能三个子成分与语言均存在双向关系,且社会经济地位在部分关系中起到调节作用。     

家庭背景因素对2～3岁城市中层儿童执行功能发展的影响

研究选取北京市3所幼儿园的73名儿童,采用固定盒子任务、延迟满足等待任务和A非B任务,系统探索了家庭背景因素对2~3岁城市中层儿童执行功能的影响。结果表明,二者之间存在具体的影响关系:非独生子女在抑制控制任务上好于独生子女;家庭成员数量越多,儿童在认知灵活性任务上表现越好;父母更高的受教育水平对儿童的认知灵活性有更积极的影响;家庭收入对执行功能的发展无显著影响;研究所涉及的家庭背景因素对工作记忆均无显著影响。可见,家庭因素会对儿童执行功能的发展产生一定影响。     

Is running a state of mind? Sports training as a potential method for developing cognitive flexibility

The study aimed to test the significance of sports participation as a potential means of improving cognitive function, particularly cognitive flexibility. Based on the characteristics of orienteering, such as frequent changes of behavioural strategies in response to changes in the situation or the simultaneous performance of several mental activities, we assumed that practising this sport could foster the development of cognitive flexibility. Two groups of volunteers were compared: 50 middle and long-distance runners and 50 orienteering runners in terms of their performance on the following measures of cognitive flexibility: a divergent thinking task, a computer flexibility task, Cognitive Flexibility Scale, and Verbal Fluency Test as a measure of executive function. Orienteering runners outperformed others on all measures except the Cognitive Flexibility Scale. Furthermore, we found that training characteristics (regularity, frequency, participation in competitions) were associated with levels of cognitive flexibility, particularly among orienteering runners, where they explained between 38% and 39% of the overall flexibility variance. Our results suggest that cognitive flexibility can be developed through sports training requiring effective dealing in a changing, complex environment. We also discuss the implications of our results for cognitive training research.     

The impact of demographics and nutritional status on cognitive functioning in an Iranian adults sample

This study investigated the impact of demographic variables and nutritional status on adult cognitive functioning using structural equation modeling. Demographic variables that were considered were height, weight and gender, whilst nutritional status was measured on the Nutrition Assessment Inventory (NAI). Cognitive functions, such as executive cognitive functions, cognitive flexibility, cognitive ability and cognitive vulnerability were measured using the Amsterdam Executive Function Inventory (AEFI), the Cognitive Flexibility Scale (CFS), the Cognitive Ability Questionnaire (CAQ), and the Dysfunctional Attitude Scale Form A-Revised (DAS-A-R) respectively. Findings indicated that ethnicity and weight variables contribute to 8.8% of the nutritional status variations observed. A SEM analysis showed that nutritional status has an impact on 13% on the measured cognitive abilities of adults. The effects of “healthy nutrition”, “use of complementary nutritients”, “coping with high fat foods”, and “high fat food assumption” subscales of the nutrition scale were found to play a role in cognitive ability. This study shows a fitted SEM for the predictive roles of ethnicity, weight and nutritional status on the cognitive ability in adults.     

Associations between touchscreen exposure and hot and cool inhibitory control in 10-month-old infants

Touchscreen use amongst young children has proliferated in recent years, yet little is known about the association between daily touchscreen exposure and inhibitory control in the first year of life. Previous research has found a negative association between the amount of television viewing and inhibitory control in early childhood, but it is unclear whether negative associations with screen use extend to touchscreens. The current study presents an exploratory analysis of the cross-sectional associations between inhibitory control and the amount of touchscreen use amongst 10-month-olds (n = 128–156). Touchscreen exposure was assessed via parent-report. In order to include a range of “hot” and “cool” aspects of inhibitory control, these skills were assessed using lab-based response inhibition and prohibition tasks as well as parent-reported observations of infants’ inhibitory control abilities and broader regulatory behaviors. A “Cognitive Executive Function (EEFQ-CEF)” score (encompassing Inhibitory Control, Flexibility, and Working Memory items) was included as a secondary broader executive function construct to examine whether effects showed specificity to inhibitory control rather than executive functions more generally. Correlation analyses indicated no association between touchscreen exposure and the four indices of IC. However, a positive association was found for the amount of touchscreen exposure and EEFQ-CEF once accounting for sociodemographic variables. The implications of these findings and future directions are discussed.     

大学生认知灵活性问卷的修订及初步使用

修订Martin等人编制的认知灵活性问卷并对我国大学生的认知灵活性进行测量。首先对366名大学生预测;然后对300名大学生正式测试;并对240名大学生进行效标效度研究;另外对785名大学生初步使用该问卷。结果表明：（1）中文修订版大学生认知灵活性问卷的项目区分度、Cronbachα系数、重测信度、结构效度和效标效度等心理测量学指标良好,可作为我国大学生认知灵活性的研究工具。（2）有社会实践经验大学生的认知灵活性显著高于无社会实践经验大学生;文科女生的认知灵活性显著高于理科女生。     

Peer Commentaries on James Russell’s Cognitive Development as an Executive Process – in part: A Homeopathic Dose of Piaget

Peter R. Hobson Beyond Agency: Commentary on ‘Cognitive Development as an Executive Process’, p.271 Olivier HoudéExecutive Performance/Competence, and Inhibition in Cognitive Development. Object, Number, Categorization and Reasoning, p.273 Marco W. Battacchi Commentary on ‘Cognitive Development as an Executive Process’, p.275 Peter Bryant Executive Control – A Cause or a Product or Both?, p.276 Jeremy I.M. Carpendale Symbols and Side Effects: Commentary on ‘Cognitive Development as an Executive Process’, p.278 Willis F. Overton Nativism, Empiricism and Developmental Dynamic Action Systems, p.280 Pierre Mounoud What is Homeopathic when you Overdose?, p.282 Joëlle Proust Experience, Action and Theory of Mind, p.285 Elisabeth Pacherie Action Monitoring: Lower, Higher and Intermediate Levels, p.287     

Executive dysfunction in autism

"Executive function" is an umbrella term for functions such as planning, working memory, impulse control, inhibition and mental flexibility, as well as for the initiation and monitoring of action. The primacy of executive dysfunction in autism is a topic of much debate, as are recent attempts to examine subtypes of executive function within autism and other neurodevelopmental disorders that are considered to implicate frontal lobe function. This article will review cognitive behavioural studies of planning, mental flexibility and inhibition in autism. It is concluded that more detailed research is needed to fractionate the executive system in autism by assessing a wide range of executive functions as well as their neuroanatomical correlates in the same individuals across the lifespan.     

A longitudinal model of executive function development from birth through adolescence in children born very or extremely preterm

Executive function deficits are often reported as a specific weakness in preterm children. Yet, executive function development is still not fully understood. In a prospective longitudinal study, 115 preterm born children, ≤31 weeks of gestation, were recruited at birth and subject to neuropsychological assessments at ages 5.5 and 18 years. By applying Miyake and colleagues’ integrative framework of executive function to our data, two core components of executive function, working memory and cognitive flexibility, were identified through confirmatory factor analysis. Developmental stability was investigated in a serial multiple mediator structural equation model. Biological, medical, and social factors as well as mental development at 10 months were entered as predictors. Both components of executive function were highly stable from 5.5 to 18 years. Gestational age, intrauterine growth, lack of perinatal medical complications, and female sex were positively related to mental development at 10 months, which together with parental education influenced both core executive functions at 5.5 years. Working memory at 5.5 years mediated outcome in working memory at 18 years. In addition to the mediation of cognitive flexibility at 5.5 years, perinatal medical complications and restricted intrauterine growth had a continued direct negative impact on cognitive flexibility at 18 years. The application of a theoretical framework added to our understanding of executive function development in preterm born children. The study supports early identification of executive deficits among children born preterm, as deficits are unlikely to diminish with maturation.