Psychometric properties of the Five Facets Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) in a meditating and a non-meditating sample

The factor structure, internal consistency, construct validity, and predictive validity of the Dutch version of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ-NL) were studied in a sample of meditators (n = 288) and nonmeditators (n = 451). A five-factor structure was demonstrated in both samples, and the FFMQ-NL and its subscales were shown to have good internal consistencies. Meditators scored higher on all facets of the FFMQ-NL than the participants in the nonmeditating sample. For both samples, expected negative correlations between most mindfulness facets (all except for the Observing facet) and the constructs of alexithymia, thought suppression, rumination, worry, and dissociation were found. The Observing facet of the FFMQ-NL showed an unexpected positive correlation with thought suppression in the nonmeditating sample. Furthermore, as expected, mindfulness facets were negatively related to psychological symptoms, and all mindfulness facets except for Observing and Describing significantly predicted psychological symptoms. Overall, the Dutch FFMQ demonstrated favorable psychometric properties, commensurate with its (original) English language version.     

Mind your words: positive and negative items create method effects on the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire

Mindfulness, a construct that entails moment-to-moment effort to be aware of present experiences and positive attitudinal features, has become integrated into the sciences. The Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ), one popular measure of mindfulness, exhibits different responses to positively and negatively worded items in nonmeditating groups. The current study employed confirmatory factor analysis with a large undergraduate sample to examine the validity of a hierarchical mindfulness model and whether response patterns related to item wording arose from method effects. Results indicated that a correlated facets model better explained the data and that negative and positive wording constituted substantive method effects. This study suggests that the FFMQ measures components that may relate to, but do not seem to directly reflect, a latent variable of mindfulness. The authors recommend against the use of an FFMQ total score, favoring individual scale scores, and further examination of method effects in mindfulness scales.     

Mindfulness and self-compassion as predictors of psychological wellbeing in long-term meditators and matched nonmeditators

Mindfulness training has well-documented effects on psychological health. Recent findings suggest that increases in both mindfulness and self-compassion may mediate these outcomes; however, their separate and combined effects are rarely examined in the same participants. This study investigated cross-sectional relationships between self-reported mindfulness, self-compassion, meditation experience, and psychological wellbeing in 77 experienced meditators and 75 demographically matched nonmeditators. Most mindfulness and self-compassion scores were significantly correlated with meditation experience and psychological wellbeing. Mindfulness and self-compassion accounted for significant independent variance in wellbeing. A significant relationship between meditation experience and wellbeing was completely accounted for by a combination of mindfulness and self-compassion scores. Findings suggest that both mindfulness and self-compassion skills may play important roles in the improved wellbeing associated with mindfulness training; however, longitudinal studies are needed to confirm these findings.     

Cross-cultural investigation of the Questionnaire of Smoking Urges in American and Spanish smokers

This study evaluated the factor structure of the Questionnaire of Smoking Urges (QSU) across American and Spanish smokers. Using confirmatory factor analyses, the fits of one-, two-, and four-factor models of smoking craving in American and Spanish data sets were compared. The two-factor model provided the best fit in both samples. However, negatively worded items confounded the interpretation of the two-factor structure in both the American and Spanish data. The first factor had positively and negatively worded items, whereas the second had only positively worded items. The two-factor structure was reexamined, removing either the positively or the negatively worded items. Using only positively worded items resulted in a loss of fit, whereas using only negatively worded items improved model fit substantially. Thus, the results supported the generalization of smoking craving across Spanish and American smokers and suggested that negatively worded items play a larger role in the two-factor structure of the QSU than originally thought.     

The ubiquity of common method variance: The case of the Big Five

The factor structures of the International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) and NEO-FFI Big Five questionnaires were examined via confirmatory factor analyses. Analyses of IPIP data for five samples and NEO data for one sample showed that a CFA model with three method bias factors, one influencing all items, one influencing negatively worded items, and one influencing positively worded items fit the data significantly better than models without method factors or models with only one method factor . With the method factors estimated, our results indicated that the Big Five dimensions may be more nearly orthogonal than previously demonstrated. Implications of the presence of method variance in Big Five scales are discussed.     

Do Mothers and Fathers Assess their Children's Behavioral Problems in the Same Way as do their Children? An IRT Investigation on the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire

This study investigated the equivalence of different types of informants, such as children (or early adolescents) and parents, in evaluating child externalizing and internalizing problems. We applied a polytomous item response theory (IRT) model for the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). We obtained responses to three subscales—Conduct Problems, Hyperactivity/Inattention, and Emotional Symptoms—from 541 elementary school students aged 10–12 years, fathers for 233 students, mothers for 275 students, and the homeroom teachers for 524 students. Expected values on the individual item calculated by the discrimination and threshold parameters were compared among students, fathers, and mothers as an investigation of differential item functioning (DIF) or differential informant functioning. Assessing either externalizing or internalizing problems were mostly equivalent between fathers and mothers, and most items for externalizing problems functioned equally between students and parents, whereas items for internalizing problems showed DIF between them. IRT also yielded that the intervals of response categories varied across items, particularly for the conduct problems items “fight” and “steal,” and positively worded items showed an extremely low threshold.     

Construct validity of the five facet mindfulness questionnaire in meditating and nonmeditating samples

Previous research on assessment of mindfulness by self-report suggests that it may include five component skills: observing, describing, acting with awareness, nonjudging of inner experience, and nonreactivity to inner experience. These elements of mindfulness can be measured with the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ). The authors investigated several aspects of the construct validity of the FFMQ in experienced meditators and nonmeditating comparison groups. Consistent with predictions, most mindfulness facets were significantly related to meditation experience and to psychological symptoms and well-being. As expected, relationships between the observing facet and psychological adjustment varied with meditation experience. Regression and mediation analyses showed that several of the facets contributed independently to the prediction of well-being and significantly mediated the relationship between meditation experience and well-being. Findings support the construct validity of the FFMQ in a combination of samples not previously investigated.     

人格测验中题目正反向陈述的效应

研究中将EPQ和NEO-FFI中的一半题目进行语义反转（肯定陈述的改为否定陈述,否定陈述的改为肯定陈述）,而另一半的题目陈述方向不变,形成的量表用于初测。重测时则把初测问卷中的题目全部进行语义反转。测试后得到363名大学生的正反EPQ和412名大学生的正反NEO-FFI数据。对比发现两套量表在使用正向题时信度略高,而使用反向陈述题目时效度略好;验证性因素分析发现正反向题能测量同一特质。正向题可能更易受反应偏差影响     

道德认同对大学生亲社会行为倾向的影响：共情的中介作用和正念的调节作用

采用道德认同量表、人际反应指针量表、亲社会行为倾向量表和五因素正念度量表对533名大学生进行调查,探讨道德认同对大学生亲社会行为倾向的影响机制。结果表明：（1）道德认同的两个维度—道德认同内化和道德认同符号化均能正向预测大学生亲社会行为倾向;（2）共情在道德认同内化和符号化对大学生亲社会行为倾向的影响过程中起部分中介作用;（3）正念在道德认同内化和符号化通过共情对大学生亲社会行为倾向的影响过程中起调节作用,正念减弱了道德认同符号化对亲社会行为倾向的正向影响,增强了共情对亲社会行为倾向的正向影响。     

项目表述效应的统计控制：以中文版生活定向测验为例

本研究以中文版生活定向测验（LOT-R）为例,使用CTCM和CTCU方法进行建模,旨在探讨中文表述的量表中是否存在项目表述效应以及影响项目表述效应的特质因素。采用中文版生活定向测验等量表组成的问卷对334名大学生进行测试。结果表明,中文版LOT-R存在项目表述效应,是一种反向题的项目表述效应,也可称为语言标签效应;在分离了反向题项目表述效应后,发现中文版LOT-R只存在乐观因子,而不再有悲观因子。这表明乐观-悲观同属于一种人格特质,而非两种不同的人格特质;反向题项目表述效应是一种结构性误差,会导致量表结构的扭曲。研究还发现担心错误和父母期望与反向题项目表述效应存在显著的负相关,表明越是担心错误或父母期望水平越高的被试,他们对反向题的项目表述效应（语言标签效应）越小。社会赞许性对反向题项目表述效应没有影响。     

The Two-Factor Solution to Allen and Meyer’s (1990) Affective Commitment Scale: Effects of Negatively Worded Items

Purpose

Affective organizational commitment is a construct important to both practitioners and researchers; thus, construct-valid measurement is needed. Allen and Meyer’s (J Occup Psychol 63:1–18, 1990) Affective Commitment Scale is a popular measure of affective organizational commitment. Although conceptualized as unidimensional, a two-factor solution sometimes emerges. Whether the two factors are substantive, reflecting AC-love and AC-joy constructs, or methodological, reflecting positively and negatively worded items, is unclear. This issue is examined in five studies.

Design/Methodology/Approach

In a new approach, conditions designed to produce cognitive fatigue are manipulated. Support for the method factor interpretation would be provided if the two-factor solution emerges only when participants are fatigued and negatively worded items are present. Cross-sample analyses are also conducted.

Findings

Analyses indicated that the two-factor solution fit the data well only when (a) participants were cognitively fatigued and (b) negatively worded items were present. This finding extended to both students and employees, and it held regardless of which items were negatively worded or whether negatively worded items were emphasized.

Implications

Results suggest that the second factor is likely methodological and seems to result from careless responding or fatigue on negatively worded items. It is suggested that users modify the items to be positively worded or administer the scale when respondents have sufficient cognitive resources to respond.

Originality/Value

This study was the first to use experimental methodology to test whether the two-factor solution is methodological or substantive. Results provide guidance for improving the scale’s construct validity in research and in practical applications.     

Meditation and psychosocial adaptation: An exploratory study

The current study examined differential patterns of interrelationships between meditators and nonmeditators on issues pertaining to psychosocial adaptation. Subjects (N=66) were randomly selected from mailing lists provided by theAssociation of Transpersonal Psychology or were solicited via classified advertising in theChicago Tribune and theDallas Morning News. The findings of the current study indicate that there are no differences between meditators and nonmeditators on level of psychosocial adaptation. However examination of the zero-order correlations between dependent measures revealed differential patterns of interrelationships within the meditator and nonmeditator groups. The findings suggest that further research is needed which expands upon the influence of meditation on psychosocial adaptation by addressing topics specific to meditative practice. The implications for the development of qualitative research methods designed to investigate psychosocial parameters in transpersonal psychology are discussed.     

The measurement of self-esteem among Korean Americans: a cross-ethnic study

Studies have indicated that Asians' self-esteem is generally lower than other ethnic groups'. The authors hypothesized that an item response bias would result in lower self-esteem scores for Asians. Specifically, it was hypothesized that positively worded items would be rated lower by Korean Americans but that there would be no difference on negatively worded items across ethnic groups. The hypothesis was tested using 214 individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia who were Korean American, Caucasian, African American, or Latino. Results supported the hypothesis. Korean Americans had significantly lower self-esteem scores than the other 3 groups on all positively worded items but were no different from the other groups on negatively worded items. Additional analyses showed modest support for the cross-cultural construct equivalence of this measure of self-esteem.     

An examination of the wording effect in the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale among culturally Chinese people

Previous psychometric studies of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; 1965) have shown that items with positive and negative words tend to form 2 factors instead of a single factor for global self-esteem. Recent studies using confirmatory factor analysis have indicated that there is an additional method effect behind negatively worded items. However, researchers conducted these studies using Western participants. Because J. L. Farh and B. S. Cheng (1997) suggested that culturally Chinese people tend to exhibit a modesty bias in self-evaluation, especially on positively worded items, researchers may infer that a wording effect of positively worded items would be evident for culturally Chinese people. The author examined the wording effect in the RSES for culturally Chinese people by comparing different confirmatory factor models. The author analyzed data from 2 independent samples of students at the National Taiwan University (ns = 393, 441) and a national sample of juniors recruited from 140 universities and colleges in Taiwan in 2004 (n = 28,862). Results showed that in addition to a global factor for self-esteem, method effects of positively and negatively worded items should also be specified for a model fitting culturally Chinese people.     

Differences in State-Trait Anxiety Inventory scores for ethnically diverse adolescents in Hawaii

This study examined the association between anxiety and 5 predictor variables: ethnicity (Caucasian, Native Hawaiian/part Hawaiian, Japanese, other), gender, grade level (9-12th), main wage earners' educational level, and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI; C. D. Spielberger, R. L. Gorsuch, & R. E. Lushene, 1970) factors for a diverse group of students. Hawaiian students were found to have significantly higher levels of anxiety than Japanese students; however, ethnicity was not a significant predictor when gender, grade level, and main wage earners' education were statistically held constant. An interaction between ethnicity and STAI factor scores indicated an atypical pattern for Caucasians. Female students scored significantly higher than male students, and main wage earners' education predicted amount of anxiety. In general, these 2 associations remained significant when ethnicity and grade level were held constant. An interaction between gender and STAI factor scores indicated that the difference between female and male students was relatively larger for positively (as opposed to negatively) worded State items and for negatively (as opposed to positively) worded Trait items. Overall, the findings suggested that apparent ethnic differences in anxiety levels may be due to causal variables related to other sociodemographic variables. Factor scores in the form of positively versus negatively worded items should be considered an important variable; using only a global STAI composite as a measure of anxiety will mask the differential effects of the STAI factor scores. Further research is needed to determine the generalizability of these findings to other groups and to provide knowledge on direct causal variables that may account for a greater percentage of variance.     

Mapping Mindfulness Facets Onto Dimensions of Anxiety and Depression

Mindfulness has been associated with anxiety and depression, but the ways in which specific facets of mindfulness relate to symptoms of anxiety and depression remains unclear. The purpose of the current study was to investigate associations between specific facets of mindfulness (e.g., observing, describing, nonjudging, acting with awareness, and nonreactivity) and dimensions of anxiety and depression symptoms (e.g., anxious arousal, general distress-anxiety, general distress-depression, and anhedonic depression) while controlling for shared variance among variables. Participants were 187 treatment-seeking adults. Mindfulness was measured using the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire and symptoms of depression and anxiety were measured using the Mood and Anxiety Symptom Questionnaire. Bivariate correlations showed that all facets of mindfulness were significantly related to all dimensions of anxiety and depression, with two exceptions: describing was unrelated to general distress-anxiety, and observing was unrelated to all symptom clusters. Path analysis was used to simultaneously examine associations between mindfulness facets and depression and anxiety symptoms. Significant and marginally significant pathways were retained to construct a more parsimonious model and model fit indices were examined. The parsimonious model indicated that nonreactivity was significantly inversely associated with general distress anxiety symptoms. Describing was significantly inversely associated with anxious arousal, while observing was significantly positively associated with it. Nonjudging and nonreactivity were significantly inversely related to general distress-depression and anhedonic depression symptomatology. Acting with awareness was not significantly associated with any dimensions of anxiety or depression. Findings support associations between specific facets of mindfulness and dimensions of anxiety and depression and highlight the potential utility of targeting these specific aspects of mindfulness in interventions for anxiety and mood disorders.     

Equivalencies regarding the measurement and constructs of self-esteem and major life events in an Asian/Pacific islander sample

Construct, scalar, and functional measurement equivalencies of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) and Major Life Events checklist (MLE) and the constructs assessed were investigated across groups differentiated on Hawaiian/part-Hawaiian and non-Hawaiian (e.g., Caucasian, Filipino, Hispanic, Japanese, and mixed/2 or more) ethnicity and gender. Initial results from maximum likelihood factoring with promax rotation showed that RSES negatively worded Item 5 loaded with the positively worded Items 1, 2, 4, 6, and 7 on 1 of 2 factors for Hawaiian/part-Hawaiian female participants. Similarly, negatively worded Item 8 and the same positively worded items comprised 1 of 2 factors for non-Hawaiian male participants. For the other 2 Ethnicity x Gender groups, factors were respectively comprised of the 5 positively and 5 negatively worded RSES items. Construct equivalence or simple (2-factor) structure underlying the RSES was indicated across the 4 groups after Items 5 and 8 were excluded from a subsequent factoring procedure. Simple structure showed that Factor 1 comprised the positively worded Items 1, 2, 4, 6, and 7, and the remaining negatively worded Items 3, 9, and 10 loaded on Factor 2. Scalar equivalence of the self-esteem and major life events measures was supported by the statistical nonsignificance of the Major Life Events x Ethnicity x Gender interaction effect in multiple regression models. The consistency in the absolute size and direction of the intercorrelations between overall self-esteem, self-esteem Factors 1 and 2, and major life events variables indicated the functional equivalence of respective measures and constructs assessed. Measurement equivalency findings concerning the RSES and MLE, the constructs measured, and their utility versus caution against their use in multiethnic studies were discussed.     

Factor structure of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire: examination of a method factor

The Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ) was originally designed as a unifactorial measure of pathological trait worry. However, recent studies supported a two-factor solution with positively worded items loading on the first factor and reverse-scored items loading on a second factor. The current study compared this two-factor model to a negative wording method factor solution among college students. A method factor model with all PSWQ items loading on a single worry factor and reverse-scored items loading on a negative wording method factor provided as good a fit as the two-factor model. This method factor alone did not predict a generalized anxiety disorder diagnosis. Finally, the psychometric properties of an abbreviated scale containing only positively worded items were examined. The PSWQ appears to measure a single unitary construct, but response patterns differ between positively worded and reverse-scored items. Theoretical implications for pathological worry and assessment-related issues are discussed.     

Psychometric properties and validation of the Swedish Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire in a clinical and non-clinical sample among meditators and non-meditators

Over a period of 15 years several attempts to conceptualize mindfulness have been presented and revised, but there is still no clear or agreed-upon definition. The use of mindfulness-based interventions has increased in clinical and research settings the last couple of years, including in Sweden. As a clinician it is crucial to know if a treatment works through the theoretically postulated mechanisms of change. Mindfulness is a concept that is difficult to measure. The overall aim of the current project was to examine the psychometric properties of the Swedish version of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ_SWE) using three different studies. To test the construct validity of the FFMQ_SWE a hierarchal confirmatory factor analysis was performed in a meditating non-clinical sample, to examine if all the five facets would load on an overall mindfulness construct. Psychometric properties of the instrument were examined in a non-clinical and a clinical sample, and discriminative relationships with other variables were analysed. The convergent validity was examined by analysing the correlations between FFMQ_SWE and Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, Sense of Coherence and Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. Test-retest reliability was tested by distributing FFMQ_SWE at two occasions. The hierarchal confirmatory factor analysis showed good fit in a population of meditators. The FFMQ_SWE showed good convergent validity and test-retest reliability in both clinical and non-clinical populations. In sum, the Swedish version of the FFMQ showed good psychometric properties and can be a useful instrument as an evaluation of treatment effects in both health care settings and research settings.     

Physiological anxiety responses in transcendental meditators and nonmeditators

In Exp. I, the spontaneous GSR of seven Transcendental Meditators and seven nonmeditators was measured in a sequence of five conditions: stress (shock avoidance)--rest--meditation (meditators) or rest/eyes closed (nonmeditators)--stress (shock avoidance)--rest. In Exp. II, the spontaneous GSR of a similar group of subjects was measured in a sequence of three conditions: rest--meditation or rest/eyes closed--rest. Analysis of variance did not yield significant differences between meditators and nonmeditators although analysis did verify that the shock-avoidance task effectively produced anxiety. It was concluded that Transcendental Meditation is not an effective means of reducing autonomic responses to stress under the present testing conditions.