PROGRAMMING THE GENERALIZATION OF A GREETING RESPONSE IN FOUR RETARDED CHILDREN1

Reinforcement techniques of prompting and shaping were employed to develop hand-waving, a useful social greeting response, in four institutionalized retarded subjects. A multiple-baseline design across subjects demonstrated the reliable functioning of the training procedures. Specifically, it showed that training and maintenance of the greeting response by one experimenter was not usually sufficient for generalization of the response to the more than 20 other members of the institution staff who had not participated in the training of the response. However, high levels of generalization to staff members were recorded for three subjects over periods ranging from one to six months after a second experimenter trained and maintained the response in conjunction with the first experimenter. The fourth subject, although never receiving training by a second experimenter, showed similar results following a second training by the first experimenter.     

TRAINING PARENTS IN BEHAVIORAL SELF-MANAGEMENT: AN ANALYSIS OF GENERALIZATION AND MAINTENANCE

This study examined the generalization and maintenance effects of three phases of parent training (Instructions plus Feedback and two Self-management Training phases) on levels of disruptive child behavior and the accuracy with which parents implemented programs. Data were collected from five families in three main settings: the initial training setting (the home), a variety of generalization settings in the community, and the family breakfast. A multiple baseline across subjects design was used. Instructions plus Feedback comprised instructing parents to use a range of behavior management procedures and provided home-based differential feedback concerning accuracy of program implementation. Self-management Training phases involved training parents in goal setting, self-monitoring, and planning skills, specific to their performance of appropriate parenting skills in generalization settings. Results indicated that the Instructions plus Feedback phase was sufficient to produce reduced levels of problem behavior at home and high levels of accurate implementation, but generalization effects out of home were equivocal. Self-management maintained reduced levels of problem behavior at home but, in addition, resulted in generalization effects in community settings for both children and parents. Maintenance probes 3 months following the program revealed the effects had been maintained.     

Orientation invariance in naming rotated objects: individual differences and repetition priming

In naming drawings of complex common objects, unpracticed naming times increase with rotation away from the upright, but this orientation effect is attenuated with practice. In principle, attenuation could result from learning to extract orientation-invariant information or from learning view-specific representations at the trained orientations. We contrasted these approaches by examining repetition priming for prime-target pairs presented on successive trials in either the same orientation (horse at 51 degrees primes horse at 51 degrees) or a different orientation (horse at 154 degrees primes horse at 51 degrees), for two subgroups of subjects. One subgroup showed no orientation effect, even when unpracticed, and a correspondingly high generalization of priming across different views. The other subgroup initially showed high sensitivity to misorientation and little priming across orientations but, with sufficient practice, came to show no orientation effect and complete generalization of priming. Thus, some subjects always used orientation-invariant procedures, whereas others learned to do so.     

Acquisition and generalization of manual signs by hearing-impaired adults with mental retardation

Behavioral procedures have been used to teach manual communication skills to individuals with mental retardation, although few studies have examined the assessment of generalization of such skills beyond the teaching environment. In this study, we investigated the effectiveness of directed rehearsal for teaching and facilitating the generalization of manual signs by six hearing-impaired adults with mental retardation. The effects of directed rehearsal, alone and combined with positive reinforcement for correct responses, were compared to a no-training control condition in an alternating treatments design. Although directed rehearsal was superior to the no-training control condition in teaching manual signs, the procedure was more effective when combined with positive reinforcement. The combined procedure was used to facilitate the generalization of learned signs across a number of variables. The results showed that there were high levels of generalization by all participants across novel phrases, settings, and trainers but variable levels of generalization to another response mode by some subjects. Further, increased levels in overall vocal communication were found for most participants.     

GENERALIZATION AND TRANSFER BETWEEN COMPREHENSION AND PRODUCTION: A COMPARISON OF RETARDED AND NONRETARDED PERSONS

The study compared the acquisition, generalization, transfer, and maintenance of language comprehension and production responses by persons at two IQ levels: mentally retarded (N = 10) and nonretarded (N = 10). The two levels of the IQ Level factor were combined factorially with two levels of a Training Condition factor: Comprehension-Production and Production Only. Participants in the former groups were trained sequentially to (a) comprehend coin labels by pointing, and then (b) produce verbally the correct coin label. Participants in the Production Only groups were trained on the latter response only. A three-factor mixed design with one repeated measure plus a multiple baseline across coin responses was employed. Results indicated that both mentally retarded and nonretarded subjects attained a high level of acquisition and maintained their performance on 1- and 4-week follow-up tests. No difference occurred between mentally retarded and nonretarded participants in magnitude of acquisition, but the mentally retarded groups took approximately three times as many trials to complete training. Data also suggested, contrary to past research, that generalization from comprehension to production was bidirectional, with no difference in magnitude between mentally retarded and nonretarded subjects. Transfer from comprehension to production occurred in both nonretarded and retarded subjects; comprehension training facilitated a savings of trials in production training. These results show that language differences between retarded and nonretarded persons are quantitative rather than qualitative as some past research may have suggested.     

Reinforcement and generalization of productive plural allomorphs in two retarded children

Morphological dictates of English usage call for the unvoiced allomorph /-s/ to form the plural of singular nouns with unvoiced endings (e.g., cups). Conversely, the voiced allomorph /-z/ is required to form the plural of nouns with voiced endings (e.g., tree). The study sought to determine the extent to which differential reinforcement could control the acquisition of plural allomorphs in two retarded subjects. In Condition 1, one subject was trained with reinforcement procedures on a list of words calling for the /-s/ allomorph. She was then given unreinforced probe items to determine the extent of generalization to words calling for the /-z/ allomorph. In Condition 2, the procedures were reversed and this subject was trained on a /-z/ list and probed for generalization of /-z/ to words calling for /-s/. A second subject was exposed to the same conditions in the opposite order. The results for the two subjects lent unequivocal support for the hypothesis of generalized training effects. It was concluded that appropriate usage of the linguistic response class "plurals" is susceptible to generalized training effects of differential reinforcement.     

Setting Generalization during Self-Reinforcement with Educationally Handicapped Children

Eight educationally handicapped boys ranging in age form 10 to 11 years old and described as the worst behavior problems in their class participated in a series of single-subject studies carried out in their self-contained classrooms. Three served as target subjects, using self-reinforcement procedures to increase their sustained on-task behavior in a treatment setting; five served as generalization subjects. Data were collected in three settings within the self-contained classroom; an early morning treatment setting, a late morning generalization setting, and an afternoon generalization setting. The three target subjects averaged a 51% increase over their baseline median levels of sustained on-task behavior in the treatment setting. They averaged 84% and 96% generalization to the late morning and afternoon generalization settings, respectively. These results demonstrate that self-reinforcement can produce setting generalization of treatment effects in the absence of prior externally determined reinforcement. Evidence for subject and subject-setting generalization was also obtained.     

Programming generalization of social skills in preschool children with hearing impairments.

The efficacy of a social skills training package in producing stimulus generalization, both with and without the systematic application of generalization programming techniques, was evaluated with 5 preschool children with hearing impairments. The evaluation was conducted within a multiple baseline design. Generalization probes were conducted daily. The social skills training package was implemented in a training setting and produced high, stable rates of social interaction in that setting. However, generalization of the social skills to new teachers, peers, and play activities did not occur until generalization programming strategies were applied in the original training setting. Using sufficient stimulus exemplars and contacting natural consequences appeared to be the key strategies for promoting generalization of social interaction. In addition, the use of supplementary procedures (e.g., a fluency criterion and treatment integrity checks) may have contributed to stimulus generalization.     

Conceptual similarity promotes generalization of higher order fear learning

We tested the hypothesis that conceptual similarity promotes generalization of conditioned fear. Using a sensory preconditioning procedure, three groups of subjects learned an association between two cues that were conceptually similar, unrelated, or mismatched. Next, one of the cues was paired with a shock. The other cue was then reintroduced to test for fear generalization, as measured by the skin conductance response. Results showed enhanced fear generalization that correlated with trait anxiety levels in the group that learned an association between conceptually similar stimuli. These findings suggest that conceptual representations of conditional stimuli influence human fear learning processes.     

RESPONSE INTERRUPTION AND DRL FOR THE REDUCTION OF RAPID EATING

We assessed the efficacy of several procedures for reducing the rate of eating responses during mealtime by three institutionalized mentally retarded clients. A time-based (15 s) response interruption procedure was implemented which resulted in little change in eating responses for 2 of 3 subjects. A spaced-responding DRL 15-s procedure resulted in decreases in eating responses to target levels only after a prompting procedure was added. Procedures were evaluated using a multiple baseline across subjects design with assessment of generalization to nontreated meals. A change in eating behavior during breakfast occurred only after direct training in the breakfast setting. Maintenance data were collected at 1- and 5-month follow-up periods.     

Assessment of role-play generalization across qualitatively different situations

Role-play generalization of newly acquired assertive behavior was assessed across different response situations in a clinical outpatient sample. Prior to assertive training, subjects completed two paper-and-pencil inventories and a series of role-play situations. Behavioral role-play scenes included four response forms: making requests, expressing affection, standing up for rights, and expressing displeasure. Subjects were randomly assigned to treatment or test-retest conditions and the treatment subjects received six 2-hr sessions of assertion training using modeling, behavior rehearsal, instruction, positive reinforcement, assignedin vivo homework, bibliotherapy, and daily recordings of assertive behavior. Posttreatment, subjects completed the paper-and-pencil measures, trained role-play scenes, and a set of dissimilar untrained scenes requiring different response forms (giving compliments, receiving compliments; refusing unreasonable requests and expressing justified anger). Videotapes were rated blindly and in random order at the conclusion of the study by trained judges. Treatment and test-retest subjects were equivalent prior to training. Posttreatment for the two groups differed in self-report, role-play behavior in trained situations, and role-play behavior in untrained dissimilar situations (allp<.001). MANOVA with repeated measures confirmed that trained and generalization role-play scenes were quantitatively, as well as qualitatively, different, confirmed that treatment and test-retest subjects exhibited different performance levels posttreatment on both trained and generalization scenes, and revealed four significant interactions (allp<.001). Implications of the interactions are discussed. Canonical correlation revealed that subjects displayed significant commonality in their behavioral profiles across different response forms. The findings indicate that complex training resulted in generalization from trained situations to untrained and dissimilar generalization scenes for the clinical outpatient sample.     

ASSESSING AND PROGRAMMING GENERALIZED BEHAVIORAL REDUCTION ACROSS MULTIPLE STIMULUS PARAMETERS

Generalization across three stimulus parameters was examined for 5 individuals whose self-injurious behavior was maintained by escape from task demands. Prior to treatment, three stimulus parameters (therapist, setting, and demands) were systematically varied across baseline sessions. These variables were held constant during treatment, which consisted of escape extinction. When treatment was completed, three novel stimulus parameters were probed. If the rate of self-injury was high during this probe, treatment was reimplemented with one new stimulus parameter (the other two were the same as in the original treatment condition). Following this second treatment, another probe with three novel stimuli was conducted. If the rate of self-injury was again high, treatment was implemented again while a second stimulus parameter was changed. This sequence continued until generalization was observed across the three parameters. Results showed idiosyncratic differences in generalization. The behavior of 2 subjects showed complete generalization during the first novel probe. A 3rd subject's behavior showed generalization following treatment across two stimulus parameters (setting and therapist). The behavior of the 2 remaining subjects showed a complete lack of generalization across the three parameters; both subjects required training for novelty by randomly varying the stimulus parameters for a substantial number of sessions.     

Suppression of normal speech disfluencies through response cost

The speech disfluencies of five normal-speaking college students were modified in a series of 10 to 17 sessions by means of response cost. During Point-loss, each disfluency (repetition or interjection of a sound, syllable, word, etc.) resulted in the loss of a penny, as indicated on a screen in front of the subject. Disfluencies were suppressed and kept at very low levels for four of the subjects during the punishment procedures, and there was general resistance to extinction. Even though points were subtracted only during speech, there was a tendency for disfluencies to decrease, though not as markedly, during reading probes as well.     

GENERALIZATION AND MANTENANCE OF TREATMENT GAINS OF BEHAVIORALLY HANDICAPPED STUDENTS FROM RESOURCE ROOMS TO REGULAR CLASSROOMS USING SELF-EVALUATION PROCEDURES

This study provided six behaviorally handicapped elementary school students with a short-term resource treatment to bring their behavior under the control of a combination of treatment procedures emphasizing self-evaluation. Once acceptable levels of appropriate behavior were maintained with only minimal external reinforcement and students were accurately self-evaluating their own work and behavior, generalization and maintenance of behavior gains were sought by introducing a reduced form of the self-evaluation procedures in the students' regular classrooms. A multiple baseline across pairs of subjects design was used to examine individual student's behavior. Analysis of the results of the study indicated that students transferred and maintained high levels of appropriate classroom behavior in their regular classrooms, once self-evaluation procedures were extended into those settings. For four of the six students, all extra-training components were faded. Only two students required a modified form of the original intervention to maintain behavior gains in their regular classrooms.     

Evaluation of a coaching strategy to reduce swimming stroke errors with beginning age-group swimmers

A coaching strategy to decrease errors in swimming strokes with swimmers who had not improved under "standard" coaching procedures was investigated using a multiple baseline design across subjects and swimming strokes. The procedure resulted in a large decrease in errors on swimming strokes during sessions in a training pool. Stimulus generalization of improved performance to normal practice conditions in the regular pool was observed with all but one swimmer. This improvement was maintained during two maintenance phases lasting approximately 2 weeks, as well as under standard coaching conditions during at least a 2-week follow-up. For two swimmers, error rates on one of the strokes showed a gradual increase between the third and fifth week of follow-up, but brief remedial prompting sessions immediately corrected their performance. Some beneficial response generalization to other components of the stroke being trained was observed, but no improvements were found on untrained strokes. The error correction package did not disrupt practice, require excessive amounts of the coach's time, or necessitate the use of cumbersome apparatus. In addition, the coach and the swimmers considered the procedures to be effective, and expressed their willingness to participate in them again in the future.     

Effects of variable-interval value and amount of training on stimulus generalization.

In Experiment 1 pigeons pecked a key that was illuminated with a 501-nm light and obtained food by doing so according to a variable-interval (VI) schedule of reinforcement, the mean value of which differed across groups: either 30 s, 120 s, or 240 s. The pigeons in all three groups were trained for 10 50-min sessions. Generalization testing was conducted in extinction with different wavelengths of light. Absolute and relative generalization gradients were similar in shape for the three groups. Experiment 2 was a systematic replication of Experiment 1 using line orientation as the stimulus dimension and a mean VI value of either 30 s or 240 s. Again, gradients of generalization were similar for the two groups. In Experiment 3 pigeons pecked a key that was illuminated with a 501-nm light and obtained food reinforcers according to either a VI 30-s or a 240-s schedule. Training continued until response rates stabilized (> 30 sessions). For subjects trained with the 30-s schedule, generalization gradients were virtually identical regardless of whether training was for 10 sessions (Experiment 1) or until response rates stabilized. For subjects trained with the VI 240-s schedule, absolute generalization gradients for subjects trained to stability were displaced upward relative to gradients for subjects trained for only 10 sessions (Experiment 1), and relative generalization gradients were slightly flatter. These results indicate that the shape of a generalization gradient does not necessarily depend on the rate of reinforcement during 10-session single-stimulus training but that the effects of prolonged training on stimulus generalization may be schedule dependent.     

Maintained generalization testing of conditioned suppression

This study concerns the use of a multiple stimulus discrimination procedure for producing data on the generalization of conditioned suppression. Four rats were maintained on a variable interval schedule of milk reinforcement in the presence of five stimuli varying in auditory click rate. When response rates were stable, electric shock was regularly paired with the termination of one of the click stimuli. For two rats the shock was paired with the slowest click rate, and for two rats shock was paired with the fastest click rate. The VI schedule remained in effect. Plots of the relative rates of response to each of the five stimuli yielded concave gradients for both animals suppressed at the slowest click rate, and flat gradients with a sharp drop at the warning stimulus for both animals suppressed at the fastest click rate. When the warning stimuli were reversed for both pairs of subjects, both gradient forms were reproduced. The present procedure was contrasted with procedures used by other investigators.     

Toilet training of normal and retarded children

Early elements in an operant chain of toilet behaviors were trained in three normal infants and five retarded children. Following that, eliminative behaviors were conditioned by operant procedures. Each child was equipped with an auditory signalling device that gave cues to the learner. Baseline behavior was recorded for a period of five days. The procedure for training consisted of two steps. First, a response was obtained through physical, verbal, and auditory prompts. Second, prompts were faded until the child responded in the presence of the auditory signal. When the device was removed the child performed without the auditory prompt. Parents were instructed in a similar procedure to enhance generalization in the home. Seven of the eight subjects reached a criterion and maintained that behavior during three criterion sessions.     

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF VERBAL INSTRUCTION ON TEACHING BEHAVIOR-MODIFICATION SKILLS TO NONPROFESSIONALS1

The effectiveness of a mastery criterion, lecture-based training program for teaching behavior modification to sheltered workshop personnel was evaluated. Staff performance was assessed in terms of: (1) verbal proficiency, as determined from a pre- and posttraining written exam, and (2) application proficiency, as measured by the frequency and appropriateness of staff responses to client behaviors. A direct count was made of the number of positive, negative, and neutral statements following client appropriate and inappropriate behaviors, and the number and type of client behaviors ignored. Thus, it was possible to determine the extent of generalization from classroom to applied settings, as well as the appropriateness of lectures for training specific performance skills. Lecture units introduced stimulus control procedures, shaping-chaining, and contingency management. Characteristic features of the training program were frequent testing, study objectives, immediate remediation, and contingent reinforcement. Verbal instruction was shown to be effective in improving subjects' verbal skills concerning behavior-modification principles, while only partially effective in improving application skills. There was an increase in the total number of staff-client interactions observed for all subjects, but only two of the response classes emphasized in the training program (reinforcing desirable client behavior and ignoring undesirable behavior) showed considerable improvement over pretraining levels. Despite this partial improvement, verbal instruction alone was shown to be insufficient for teaching the full range of behavior-modification skills required to function effectively in applied settings.     

Mimicry versus imitative modeling: Facilitating sentence production in the speech of the retarded

Two methods of language instruction administered to mentally retarded subjects at the two-word stage of language development were investigated. Subjects of the mimicry training group imitated Agent-Action-Object (AAO) constructions immediately after presentation, while subjects of the imitative modeling group first heard the AAO presentation and later produced the AAO construction in response to a verb question. Imitative modeling subjects achieved as many correct AAO responses during training and more correct responses on a generalization task and in a free play setting. They also displayed more novel response behavior (selective imitations) and spontaneously corrected productions. The results support the use of modeling procedures for inducing language production in the retarded.