Construct of job performance: Evidence from Chinese military soldiers

The construct of job performance has been one of the important topics in job performance research. The present study investigated the construct of job performance among Chinese military soldiers using both qualitative and quantitative methods. First, after interviewing 95 officers and soldiers, we categorized and conceptualized eight sets of typical behavioural incidents related to soldiers' job performance, and designed a questionnaire measuring job performance. Then, using a sample of 1402 Chinese soldiers, questionnaire reliability and validity were tested, and then the questionnaire was revised. The construct of job performance was further refined using confirmatory factor analyses and regression analyses using another sample of 1068 soldiers. The results showed that Chinese military soldiers' job performance consisted of two dimensions of task performance and contextual performance. Furthermore, task performance had three subfactors: military training, task accomplishment and work capability, whereas contextual performance encompassed four factors: helping others, love of learning, promoting organizational benefit and self-discipline. Task performance and contextual performance contributed independently to overall job performance.     

Humor and coping with stress: A test under real-life conditions

The relationship between humor and coping with stress was investigated for trainees in a course for combat NCOs in the Israel Defense Forces. Measures of humor through self-report and peer-ratings were administered to 159 soldiers. Coping with stress was assessed through ratings by commanders and peers, and through final course grades. The findings showed that humor as rated by peers (but not by self-report) was positively related to performance under stress. This was especially true for active humor (self-produced as opposed to reactive humor). No differences were found between individuals characterized by self-directed humor and other-directed humor in performance under stress. The implications in terms of humor theories and further research are discussed.     

Courageous acts or courageous actors?

The title question was addressed by relating psychometric, psychiatric and field-performance measures obtained from a group of military bomb-disposal operators. The outstandingly successful operators in this highly competent group of soldiers were found to have some distinctive features. The excellent performance and personal stability of the group as a whole was noteworthy and may have precluded the emergence of more distinctive features of courage. Evidence was obtained of acts of courage and of courageous actors.     

Stress-related cognitive interference predicts cognitive function in old age

Both subjective distress and cognitive interference have been proposed as mechanisms underlying the negative effects of stress on cognition. Studies of aging have shown that distress is associated with lower cognitive performance, but none have examined the effects of cognitive interference. One hundred eleven older adults (M-sub(age)=80) completed measures of working memory, processing speed, and episodic memory as well as self-report measures of subjective distress and cognitive interference. Cognitive interference was strongly associated with poorer performance on all 3 cognitive constructs, whereas distress was only modestly associated with lower working memory. The results suggest that cognitive process related to stress is an important predictor of cognitive function in advanced age.     

Functional significance of psychological variables that are included in the Theory of Planned Behaviour: a Self-Determination Theory approach to the study of attitudes,subjective norms,perceptions of control and intentions

The Theory of Planned Behaviour was proposed by Ajzen (1985) in an attempt to expand the applicability of the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) to situations where behaviour is not under complete volitional control. However, recent research does not address the issue of the stability of intentions, yet this is considered a boundary condition of the TRA on theoretical grounds. Therefore, the purposes of the present article were, first, to make a theoretical approach to the study of the stability of behavioural intentions by discussing assumptions underlying self-determination theory. Second, because, according to self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), stability of intentions is related to the functional significance of psychological events, investigation of the functional significance of attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control was attempted through a study dealing with leisure-time physical activity. Because investigation of functional significance requires instruments assessing behavioural regulations, instrument development took place. Results partially supported the validity of behavioural regulations with respect to leisure-time physical activity. Furthermore, subjective norms were found to represent only the controlling dimension of functional significance. Attitudes and perceived behavioural control were found to represent both the controlling and informational dimensions of functional significance. Results are discussed in relation to assumptions underlying the Theories of Reasoned Action and Planned Behaviour and the Theory of Trying. Implications for theory development are made. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Private self-consciousness as moderator of the importance of attitude and subjective norm: The prediction of voting

The influence of private self-consciousness on the components of Ajzen and Fishbein's attitude model (attitude and subjective norm) is analysed. The impact of past behaviour on both current behaviour and behavioural intention is also studied. This model was applied to the prediction of voting intention and reported behaviour in the Spanish Parliamentary elections held in 1989, Attitude showed stronger influence than subjective norm on behavioural intention for subjects with a higher private self-consciousness. The opposite was true for subjects having a lower private self-consciousness. Past behaviour had a significant influence on both behavioural intention and behaviour.     

Combat Stressors Predicting Perceived Stress Among Previously Deployed Soldiers

While combat exposures are considered principle stressors in developing mental health problems, research suggests social support can reduce this risk. Using data from 1,592 previously deployed soldiers, we found five classes of soldiers based on their patterns of responses to items measuring perceived stress. In subsequent analyses, we found increased combat exposure predicted membership in classes with greater combat-related stress, while greater unit cohesion predicted membership in classes with lower perceived stress. Also, greater willingness to report misconduct predicted greater unit cohesion. Results suggest that unit cohesion plays a vital role in the reduction of perceived stress among soldiers.     

Testing the stress-buffering effects of self engagement among soldiers on a military operation

The present research examined whether self engagement moderated the stressor-strain relationship in a sample of U.S. soldiers deployed on a peacekeeping mission to Bosnia. Given that individuals were nested within groups (Army companies), we examined the relationships of interest using multilevel random coefficient models. The results of these analyses revealed that self engagement interacted with three different stressors (lower amounts of sleep, work stress, family stress) in the prediction of psychological distress. In support of self engagement as a buffer against stress, when stressors were low (high amounts of sleep, low levels of work stress, and family stress), soldiers reported relatively low levels of psychological distress and physical symptoms, regardless of whether they were engaged in or disengaged from their job. However, when stressor levels were high, soldiers who were engaged in their job reported less elevation in reports of psychological distress than soldiers who were disengaged from their job. The results are discussed in terms of the potential mechanisms by which self engagement might protect individuals from stressful circumstances.     

Type D personality and cardiac output in response to stress

Type D personality is predictive of adverse clinical outcome and psychological distress in cardiac patients. However, the mechanisms by which Type D affects health are largely unknown. This study (1) investigated the relationship between Type D and cardiovascular reactivity to experimentally induced stress and (2) tested the influence of Type D on subjective feelings of stress. Eighty four healthy young adults (50% males, mean (SD) age 22 (6.84) years), completed measures of Type D personality, stress arousal and a stress-inducing procedure involving a taxing mental arithmetic task. Cardiovascular measures were recorded throughout the experiment. Mixed measures ANOVA showed a significant main effect of Type D and a significant group by time effect of Type D on cardiac output in male participants. Type D males exhibit significantly higher cardiac output during the stressor phase compared to non-Type D males. However, there was no relationship between Type D and cardiovascular reactivity in females. In addition, Type D individuals exhibited significantly higher feelings of subjective stress compared to non-Type D's. These findings provide new evidence on Type D and suggest that Type D may affect health through increased cardiac output and higher subjective feelings of stress following acute stress.     

Reciprocal Longitudinal Relations Between Leader and Follower Effectiveness

This study examined the longitudinal reciprocal effects between leader effectiveness and follower effectiveness (leaders lower in the hierarchy and groups of soldiers). The effectiveness of 60 groups of soldiers and their commanders up to platoon level was measured at 3 points in time. The results show that platoon commanders have an effect on the performance of their groups but not on the groups' cohesion or attitudes. In turn, commander effectiveness is influenced by the attitudes of the groups of soldiers and of the deputy group commanders. The results suggest that groups perform better when they are more open to leadership.     

Self-engagement, stressors, and health: a longitudinal study

The authors examined whether engagement in a performance domain could buffer or exacerbate the consequences of different stressors. Soldiers completed measures of engagement in work, work demands (days training, work hours, and subjective work overload), and symptoms at two time periods. Engagement in work interacted with days training and work hours at Time 1 to predict health symptoms at Time 2 (after controlling Time 1 outcomes). Soldiers highly engaged in their jobs were less likely to report negative consequences under high levels of training/work hours in comparison to soldiers disengaged from their jobs. However, engagement in work interacted with work overload in the opposite manner, with high levels of engagement potentiating the relationship between overload and reports of health symptoms. Engagement in a domain appears to buffer individuals from stressors that do not undermine performance but may exacerbate the impact of stressors that compromise performing well in the domain.     

Children with positive attitudes towards mind-wandering provide invalid subjective reports of mind-wandering during an experimental task

This study investigated mind-wandering (MW) in children during a laboratory task, and explored the influence of children’s attitudes towards MW on the accuracy of their subjective reports. Children’s MW experiences were probed during the adapted Sustained-Attention-to-Response-Task (SART), and their attitudes was measured by a questionnaire, according to which children were divided into positive or negative group. Results showed that (1) MW in children was basically identical to MW in adults which was associated with poor performance, increased behavioural variability, and a prospective bias; (2) reliable correlations between behavioural correlates and MW frequency were observed in negative group, but not in positive group; and (3) positive group reported more MW than negative group, while no behavioural correlate was significantly different between the two groups. We concluded that (1) overall, children could accurately introspect their MW experiences during SART; and (2) children with positive attitudes provided invalid subjective reports of MW.     

Dreading the boards: stress response to a competitive audition characterized by social-evaluative threat

The capacity of psychosocial stressors to provoke the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis has been demonstrated to vary depending upon a number of psychological factors. Laboratory stressors characterized by social-evaluative threat are proposed to be the most efficacious in the elicitation of a cortisol stress response. Salivary cortisol, cardiovascular, and subjective responses of 16 healthy adults facing a naturalistic stressor characterized by social-evaluative threat (competitive performance auditions) were examined. Audition exposure was sufficient to provoke significant cortisol, arterial blood pressure (systolic and diastolic), and subjective stress responses. Cortisol response reactivity (area under the curve with respect to increase [AUCi]) also correlated with participants' subjective rating of social-evaluative threat. The competitive performance audition context is therefore considered a promising context in which to further explore cortisol responsivity to social-evaluative threat.     

Does emotionality predict stress? Findings from the normative aging study

Investigated whether emotionality, assessed in 1975, predicted the reporting of both objective stress (life events) and subjective stress (hassles) 10 years later, and how emotionality affected the relation between both objective and subjective stress and mental health. The sample consisted of 1,159 older men, participants in the Normative Aging Study. Path analysis revealed that the reporting of stress was confounded with personality: Individuals higher in emotionality reported both more life events and more hassles. Furthermore, individuals higher in emotionality exhibited slightly higher levels of symptoms under stress than did individuals lower in emotionality. Nonetheless, both stress measures contributed independent variance to the prediction of psychological symptoms, even controlling for prior levels of emotionality. Implications for the assessment of stress are discussed.     

Low Intensity Conflict Stress in Soldiers: Building Coping Skills and Resources

With the conventional wars being rarer, low intensity conflict (LIC) operations have now become a norm. This new military environment is characterized by ambiguous and unpredictable situations, complex goals, invisible enemy combatants, political sensitivities, undefined restraints on weaponry tactics and associated multiple microstressors that make it highly stressful and cognitively demanding for soldiers. Considering LIC stress under a holistic / interactionistic paradigm, this review paper examines (i) the unique stressors of LIC operations and their impact on soldiers?? mental health and fitness, cognitive functioning, combat readiness and effective performance; (ii) preventive training programmes (Hardiness Training and Comprehensive Soldier Fitness) for developing and sustaining resilience; (iii) the central role of military leadership and structure as key components of combat stress control, unit cohesion, institutional support and other HR practices (e.g., command consultation, grievance redresssal, performance appraisal, communication, conflict resolution); and (iv) mental health services as coping resources and potential stress countermeasures such as psychological first aid, after-action debriefing, operational stress training, suicide prevention, treatment of stress casualities, help-seeking skills and self-care as part of preventive mental health training and post-trauma rehabilitation. The roles of both the skill-building and the stress-combating aspects of training, leadership, organizational support / HR practices and mental health services seem important as potential moderators of stress-strain relationship in LIC operations.     

Visuo-spatial path learning,stress, and cortisol secretion following military cadets’ first parachute jump: the effect of increasing task complexity

The present field experiment examined how multi-trial visuo-spatial learning and memory performance are impacted by excessive arousal, instigated by a potentially life-threatening event (i.e., a first parachute jump). Throughout a parachute training activity, subjective and neuroendocrine (i.e., cortisol) stress levels were assessed of 61 male military cadets who were randomly assigned to a control (n = 30) or a jump stress condition (n = 31). Post-stress learning and memory capacity was assessed with a 10-trial path-learning task that permitted emergence of learning curves. Pre-activity cortisol concentrations indicated a significant neuroendocrine anticipatory stress response in the stress group. Following parachuting, subjective stress levels and salivary cortisol reactivity differed significantly between groups. Visuo-spatial path-learning performance was impaired significantly after jump stress exposure, relative to the control group. Moreover, examination of the learning curves showed similar learning and memory performance at onset of the trials, with curves bifurcating as the task became more complex. These findings are in accordance with leading theories that acknowledge a moderating effect of task complexity. In sum, the present study extends knowledge concerning anticipatory stress effects, endogenously instigated cortisol reactivity, and the influence of extreme arousal on visuo-spatial path learning.     

Cognitive Bias to Internal Sources of Information in Anxiety

Discrepancies between (a) self-reported psychosomatic symptoms and (b) actual fitness under non-stress (Study 1), as a function of trait anxiety, were examined, as well as discrepancies between (a) self-reported cognitive and somatic state anxiety and (b) objective measures of behavioural reactivity, physiological arousal, and performance under social-evaluative stress (Study 2). Results indicated that persons high in trait anxiety exaggerated distress in both conditions: They showed disproportionately greater self-reported concerns than actual problems. In contrast, those low in anxiety minimized distress (lower self-reported than actual problems). These discrepancy phenomena are explained in terms of biases in the processing of internal sources of information.     

Psychological symptoms and marital satisfaction in spouses of Operation Iraqi Freedom veterans: relationships with spouses' perceptions of veterans' experiences and symptoms

Much research has shown that spouses of combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have higher rates of psychological and marital distress than do spouses of veterans without PTSD; however, very few studies have examined potential mechanisms of this increased vulnerability. The current study examined spouses of National Guard soldiers recently returned from deployments in Iraq. In addition to documenting elevated levels of psychological symptoms in these spouses, the authors found that spouses experienced greater symptom severity when they perceived high levels of symptoms in soldiers but the soldiers endorsed low levels of symptoms. Furthermore, spouses' marital satisfaction was negatively linked to soldiers' self-reported symptom severity only when spouses perceived that soldiers had experienced low levels of combat activity while deployed. When spouses perceived high levels of such activity, soldiers' self-reported symptoms had no relationship with spouses' marital satisfaction. These findings highlight the importance of interpersonal perceptions in intimate relationships and are consistent with the notion that uncontrollable attributions for a relative's mental health problems may provide a buffer against relationship distress. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2008 APA, all rights reserved).     

The Effects of Computer Monitoring,Standards, and Rewards on Work Performance,Job Satisfaction,and Stress1

The effects of automated computer monitoring under different conditions of performance standards and reward were examined in two studies conducted in a simulated organization. In the first study, 37 computer operators were divided into six groups who worked for a 2-week period under different levels of performance standards. Individual keystrokes per hour and productive time was monitored by the computers for all of the groups (one group was a control group which was monitored but was unaware of the monitoring). Four of the six groups were assigned work standards, and performance against standards was also monitored for these four groups. Feedback reports on the monitored performance were available on demand at the individual consoles for those groups which were informed of the monitoring. The results showed that computer monitoring and feedback led to increased key rate compared to the control group which was not aware of monitoring. There was little effect of monitoring on work quality, satisfaction, and stress. In the second study, 24 operators worked for a 9-week period under various performance standards and rewards. Individual keystrokes per hour, productive time, and performance against standards were monitored by the computers for all workers. Feedback reports on performance against standards and rewards earned were available on demand at the individual consoles. The results revealed that the feedback from different combinations of standards and rewards had varying effects on performance, satisfaction, and stress. These effects, and the results from the first study, are discussed in terms of goal setting and expectancy theory.