Effects of Offenders' Age and Health on Sentencing Decisions

ABSTRACT

Two experiments investigated the effects of age and health on mock judges' sentencing decisions. The effects of these variables on length of prison sentence were examined in the context of offense severity and prior convictions. Experiment 1 involved a violent crime. Main effects were observed for age, health, offense severity and prior convictions. There was also an age by offense severity interaction. Experiment 2 involved a child sexual abuse case. Main effects were observed for health, offense severity, and prior convictions. In addition, an age by offense severity by prior convictions interaction effect was found. Thus, across both experiments, the age leniency effect was moderated by legal factors, suggesting that extra-legal factors affect sentencing in the context of legal factors. Further, for both offenses, offenders in poor health received shorter sentences than offenders in good health, suggesting that health deserves further research attention as an extra-legal variable.     

The Effects of Time Delays on Consumers' Use of Different Criteria for Product Purchase Decisions

Recent research has suggested that time delays might result in consumers' reliance on different sets of criteria in making product purchase decisions. A critical criterion among these factors is consumers' product category knowledge. The present study suggests that category knowledge mediates temporally distanced purchase decisions. When product category knowledge is retrieved, it has no or marginal immediate influence on consumers' decisions. However, retrieved product category knowledge has a substantial influence on consumers' decisions if these are delayed, that is, when decisions are made only after some time had elapsed since the exposure to product information. The function of product category knowledge within the decision predictors is conceptualized and demonstrated empirically. Its significance in the marketing reality which involves numerous decisions that are obtained in delay, is discussed.     

Predictors of Sentencing Decisions: The Beliefs, Personality Variables, and Demographic Factors of Juvenile Justice

The role of beliefs, personality variables, and demographic factors in the sentencing of juvenile offenders was investigated. The subjects (1,030 members of the juvenile justice system) judged hypothetical juvenile perpetrators. Various personality, belief, and demographic variables were found to be related to sentencing severity; these relationships differed based on the type of crime judged. Further, relations among these variables and sentencing behavior indicated three coherent patterns or resonances. A liberal group of individuals, believing in rehabilitation, external causality of crime, a positive prognosis for the perpetrator, and nontraditional views of women, sentenced moderately. Two types of conservative individuals were defined. Both groups were punitive, and believed in internal causality of crime; however, they differed on attitudes toward women, needs for cognition, and beliefs about seriousness and harm. One group sentenced the most severely and the other the most leniently. Implications for the sentencing of juvenile offenders are discussed.     

The Complex Use of Religion in Decisions on Organ Transplantation

Because of its existential character, organ transplantation is strongly connected to a person’s view of life. This article describes how participants in a focus group use religious elements in decision-making on transplantation medicine in four European countries. Further these findings are related to two influential theologians: James Gustafson and Paul Ramsey, and their thinking on the role of religion in medical ethics. Both participants’ and theologians’ use of religious elements is complex, and show significant variety in regard to both content and form. Decisions in transplantation medicine would benefit from considering the complexity of religious views when striving for informed consent as participative involvement.     

Effects of Defendant Background and Remorse on Sentencing Judgments

Previous evidence that subject sentencing judgments are mediated by considerations of equity led to the hypothesis that defendant remorse and an impoverished defendant background would each reduce subject sentencing judgments. Results from 48 male and 48 female student subjects showed that remorse had the predicted effect ( p < .02) but background did not. Regardless of the initial manipulation, sentences shifted significantly toward leniency ( p < .02) after subjects had engaged in group discussion. The effect for remorse is consistent with the contention that the equity principle extends to psychological factors, while the leniency shift raises the possibility that jury deliberations tend to favor the defendant.     

Concurrent Use of Cigarettes,Alcohol, and Coffee1

The interrelationships between cigarette, alcohol, and coffee use were examined in 307 U.S. army trainees and 304 U.S. enlisted army personnel. Usage patterns indicated distinct gender differences in this occupational setting. Among women, cigarette use and alcohol consumption were positively correlated; whereas for men, cigarette and coffee use were positively related. For both males and females, alcohol and coffee use were only weakly correlated. As demonstrated in other studies, nonsmokers showed a consistent pattern of abstention from coffee and alcohol or moderate alcohol use.     

Effects of Eyewitness Evidence on Plea-Bargain Decisions by Prosecutors and Defense Attorneys1

The present experiment tested the relative impact of two types of eyewitness evidence (identification and non identification) on plea-bargain decisions by prosecutors and defense attorneys. A hypothetical case involving a robbery was mailed to three prosecutors and three defense attorneys in each of 47 states. The subjects were randomly assigned to receive a case in which an eyewitness claimed: (a) the defendant was the criminal (identification), (b) the defendant was not the criminal (non identification), or (c) it was not possible to tell whether the defendant was the criminal (control). Similar to findings with jurors, both prosecutors and defense attorneys underutilized the non identification information in making their plea-bargain decisions. In the case of the prosecutors, there was evidence that the underutilization of eyewitness non identification was at least partially mediated by the prosecutors' predictions of juror reaction to the evidence.     

Expectancies About the Effects of Alcohol on the Self and on Others as Determinants of Alcohol Policy Attitudes1

The present study brings together 2 separate lines of research in the alcohol field: alcohol expectancies and policy attitudes. Expectancies concerning the short- and long-term effects of drinking (e.g., aggression), were predicted to be stronger determinants of support for alcohol availability control when the target person was another, compared to when discussing effects of one's own drinking. In a population-based survey conducted in 1992, 804 current drinkers were asked about self and other alcohol expectancies, as well as attitudes toward various alcohol policies. Results showed a distinct self-other discrepancy, with people more likely to expect alcohol to have a greater effect over others than over themselves. Further, it was found that these other-expectancies were among the strongest predictors of favoring tighter alcohol controls. These findings lend support to findings of a self-other bias in social psychology, and provide insight as to the structure of public opinion on alcohol policy.     

Contextual Effects in Judgments of Crimes,Criminals, and the Purposes of Sentencing1

Content analyses of crime coverage in the news media (e.g., Graber, 1980) consistently demonstrate the overrepresentation of crimes of violence. It was hypothesized that in addition to direct effects upon members of the public (e.g., leading people to overestimate the number of violent crimes) this would also have several indirect effects. Reading about crimes of high seriousness might lead the public to (a) view other offenses more seriously, (b) regard other offenders more negatively, (c) punish other offenders more severely, and (d) emphasize the importance of retribution as a sentencing goal. Two experiments were conducted, using 90 members of the general public as subjects, to test these hypotheses. In Experiment I, subjects first read a news story about a crime that was of high, medium, or low seriousness. Later they rated an unrelated offender and offense more negatively, and were more punitive in their sentences, if the earlier offense had been very serious. There was equivocal support for the hypothesis that changes in punitiveness are caused by subjects shifting to a punishment-oriented sentencing strategy. Rather, it would appear that harsher penalties resulted from changes in perceptions of offense seriousness. These findings are discussed, as are future research directions.     

Effects of Maternal Depression Symptoms and Alcohol Use Problems on Child Internalizing and Externalizing Behavior Problems

Empirical evidence suggests maternal behavioral health problems are significant predictors of child behavioral health difficulties, but it is unclear of the specific relation of maternal alcohol use problems and depression symptoms with child internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. The purpose of the study is to examine the impact of maternal depression symptoms and alcohol use problems on children’s internalizing and externalizing behavior problems over a period of 5 years. Implications for intervention may differ depending on which type of maternal behavioral health concerns predicts which child behavior problem. A total of 1874 families eligible for Early Head Start participated. Maternal depression symptoms and alcohol use problems were assessed when children were in preschool, and internalizing and externalizing behavior problems were assessed when children were in fifth grade. Clinical internalizing behavior problems was best predicted by maternal depression symptoms, whereas clinical externalizing behavior problems was best predicted by maternal alcohol use problems. Children were almost twice as likely to have clinical internalizing behavior problems when mothers exhibited very elevated depression symptoms compared to when mothers displayed minimal symptoms. A similar relation was found with maternal alcohol use problems and clinical externalizing behavior problems. Our findings highlight the importance of understanding and treating various kinds of behavioral health concerns in mothers of young children.     

The Effects of Family Type, Family Relationships and Parental Role Models on Delinquency and Alcohol Use Among Flemish Adolescents

This study focused on the effects of family type, family relationships and socialization on alcohol consumption and delinquent behaviour among Flemish adolescents. Data came from the second round of the Leuven Adolescents and Families Study and were collected in 2010 by paper-and-pencil questionnaires in 10 different secondary schools (N = 1,688). The results show that children living in non-intact families are more likely to be delinquent and to drink alcohol at an age it is not legally allowed (below 16 years old). High delinquent behaviour is found among boys in single parent families and among girls in stepfamilies. For alcohol use the reverse is true. A good relationship with the same-sex parent is negatively associated with delinquency. High interparental conflict increases delinquency for boys and alcohol use for girls. Parental role models are highly important, since drinking behaviour of parents, and especially the same-sex parent, are positively associated with externalising problems of children.     

The Effect of Mood and Social Outlook on Hypothetical Juridic Decisions1

Data are reported for a laboratory experiment which examines both the impact of information about remote social events on judgments of defendants' guilt or innocence in two court cases and the roles of cognitive and affective elements in mediating these judgments. Subjects were exposed to one of four pretested news bulletins which covaried cognitive factors (positive or negative social information) and affective ones (positive or negative mood stimuli). In accord with previous findings, the results indicate that social information and the changes in social outlook that it caused were of primary importance in altering subjects' judgments about defendants. Subjects who heard positive social information in radio newscasts were more lenient in their judgments of defendants than were those who heard negative social information. Additional findings pertaining to the mediators of this effect suggest that positive mood amplified the impact of social information whatever its direction, while negative mood attenuated it.     

Influence of Religiosity and Alcohol Use on Personal Well-Being

ABSTRACT

A study of some correlates of life satisfaction among residents of two retirement communities. One community represents retired secular professionals, and the other is made up of retired religious professionals. Based on 156 interviews, data were examined dealing with life satisfaction, religiosity, social interaction extent of alcohol use, death anxiety, and perceived health. A comparison between the two communities shows that residents or the religious community score higher on measures of life satisfaction, social activity, and religiosity, lower on death anxiety, and alcohol consumption. Another statistical analysis shows that religiosity plays a direct role in feelings of personal well-being.     

The Influence of Applicant Communication Style and Interviewer Characteristics on Hiring Decisions1

This study examined the influence of the gender and communication style of job applicants, as well as the gender and sex-role stereotyping of interviewers, on hiring decisions. Fifty-six personnel officers viewed videotapes of simulated employment interviews, in which male and female candidates used either aggressive, assertive, or nonassertive styles of communication. Personnel officers rated job candidates on likeability, similarity to the officers themselves, and hireability. Interviewers were most likely to employ assertive applicants, and the sex-role stereotypes of interviewers did not influence their perceptions of these candidates. Sex-role beliefs, however, did affect evaluations of aggressive and nonassertive job applicants. Interviewers who were low in sex-role stereotyping were more likely to hire a nonassertive than an aggressive candidate, while interviewers with higher levels of sex-role stereotyping were more likely to hire aggressive candidates. For assertive candidates, judgments by the interviewers of the perceived similarity of the candidate to themselves and their liking for the applicant both influenced their decision to hire the candidate. For aggressive and nonassertive candidates, however, the interviewers' liking toward the candidate mediated the relationship between perceived similarity and hiring decisions.     

Effects of Applicant Pregnancy on Hiring Decisions and Interview Ratings

The effects of pregnancy on hiring decisions during employment interviews are examined in a United States sample of 210 undergraduate business school students at a Midwestern university. A pregnant applicant was compared to a non-pregnant applicant with identical credentials and interview performance to explore any differences in interviewer ratings of qualifications and hiring by having participants view videotaped interviews. Results show that in spite of being viewed as equally qualified and well-suited for the job, the pregnant applicant received significantly lower hiring recommendation ratings. The pregnant applicant was also rated as more likely to need time off, miss work and quit compared to the non-pregnant applicant, indicating a concern about absenteeism regarding the pregnant applicant.     

Activation and Use of Racial Stereotypes in Personnel Decisions: A Test of Two Theories1

This research tested contrasting predictions about activation and use of racial stereotypes in personnel decisions. Devine's (1989) theory' holds that stereotyped inferences should be apparent when decisions are time constrained and judges have little opportunity to suppress automatically activated stereotypes. Gilbert & Hixon's (1991) busy-ness model implies that stereotypes are unlikely to be activated and to influence the decisions of judges unless these decisions are not time-constrained. Participants were allowed 90 s or 180 s to evaluate Black and White candidates for football managerial positions requiring aggressiveness (linebacker coach) or cognitive prowess (general manager). Only when decisions were not time constrained did participants show stereotyped judgments by favoring Whites for the general manager's position and overranking Blacks for linebacker coach. This pattern was consistent with Gilbert & Hixon's busy-ness model and contrary to Devine's theory of automatically activated stereotypes.     

Priming Effects in Lexical Decisions on Sex-Stereotypical Adjectives

To investigate the semantic memory organization of gender concepts, we used gender words to prime lexical decisions on stereotypically feminine and masculine adjectives (e.g., emotional and aggressive, respectively) in two experiments. Under certain conditions, gender primes facilitated performance on both stereotypically appropriate and inappropriate adjectives. Female subjects were facilitated when either the word woman or man primed stereotypically feminine adjectives. Male subjects were facilitated when the word male primed either stereotypically masculine or feminine adjectives (and they were inhibited when woman primed these adjectives, especially the masculine ones). These results suggest overlap in the memory representations of traits associated with the two genders.